Universals Archive

The same as to Greenberg’s universal #1:1. Iraqw (Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic), Khamti (Tai, Daic), standard Persian (Iranian, IE), Amharic (Semitic, Afro-Asiatic) (Greenberg 1963: 105, fn. 8); Papago (Tepiman, Uto-Aztecan) (Greenberg 1963: 107, add. note) [but see Comment 4]; Cora (Corachol, Uto-Aztecan) and Tepehuan (Tepiman, Uto-Aztecan) are both VSO but have postpositions; Tetelcingo Aztec (Uto-Aztecan), also VSO, has both prepositions and postpositions (Pickett 1983: 539).2. Iñapari (Arawak): verb-initial, postpositions; other properties: head-marking, polysynthetic, split-ergative cross-referencing (Parker 1995, reviewed by Aikhenvald 1998).3. Yagua (Peba-Yaguan): verb-initial, postpositions; other properties: Gen N, N Adj (Payne 1986). 4. Guajajara (Tupi-Guarani): verb initial, postpositions; other properties: Gen N, N Adj (Harrison 1983, 1986).5. Nomatsiguenga (Arawak): verb-initial, postpositions; other properties: N Gen, N Adj & Adj N (Payne 1986: 458, Wise 1971). 6. Majang (Surma, Nilo-Saharan): verb-initial and postpositions (Dryer 1997: 132).7. Old Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic): VSO and TopicV(Agr)O, prepositions, but also two postpositions (-js ‘like’, -jsT ‘and’) that have been interpreted as relics of Afro-Asiatic case affixes (for details see Zeidler 1992: 213-214)(F. Kammerzell, p.c.).8. Baure, Ignaciano, Machiguenga (all Arawak) are verb-initial and postpositional [see Comment 3](Keenan 1978: 292)

1. Cf. two separate statements by Keenan (##1546, 1547): “In verb-initial languages, where affixal case marking occurs, it is more likely to be prefixal ...”“In verb-initial languages, where case marking exists it is normally done by prepositions.” 2. Cf. Greenberg’s statement (#55): Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.3. Baure, Ignaciano, Machiduenga (all Arawakan) are verb-initial and postpositional.This patterning is probably due to the fact that the languages recently changed from verb-final to verb-initial order; and verb-final languages generally favour postpositions (Keenan 1978: 291-292). 4. See also #1521. 5. Payne 1987 provides data against classifying Papago as VSO.