References
Bibliography for both archives. Click an author name to see the full citation and archive entries that cite it.
Cited from: Universals Archive · Raritätenkabinett
Dependencies between grammatical systems. Language 74: 56-80.
Cited in:
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #2016: Overall Dependency Hierarchy between Grammatical Systems:1. Polarity (I)2. Tense; Aspect; Evidentiality (II)3.
- Universal #2017: ... if a system does show functional markedness it is generally the case that (i) when the number of choices i
- Universal #2018: A system of switch-reference marking is found only in languages with an accusative syntax.
- Universal #2019: It is probably the case that a classifier set always includes a contrast human/nonhuman or animate/inanimate .
Classifiers. Language 53: 285-311.
Cited in:
- Universal #1370: There is a universal principle that in numeral classifier languages classifier concatenates with a quantifier,
- Universal #1371: If grammatical number (singular, dual, paucal, plural) is marked at all on classifier constructions, it is usu
- Universal #1372: No language contrasts a 'round' classifier with a 'polyhedral' classifier, unless the latter is the classifier
- Universal #1373: The smaller the number of classifiers in a language, the more likely they are to be configurational rather tha
- Universal #1374: Intra-locative classifier languages have no quanta classifiers at all.
Speech rhythm: Its relation to performance universals and articulatory timing. Journal of Phonology 3: 75-86.
Lexical universals of body part terminology. In Greenberg 1978 (ed.), Volume 3, 335-368.
Cited in:
- Universal #1184: If in a given language there is a separate term for ‘leg’ (as opposed to ‘foot’), then there is also a term fo
- Universal #1185: If there is a separate term for ‘foot’, then there is also one for ‘hand’, but not vice versa.
- Universal #1186: In all languages known so far there appear to be labels for ‘toe’ and ‘finger’. But if there are terms for ind
- Universal #1499: All languages label ‘eyes’, ‘nose’, and ‘mouth’.
- Universal #1500: The upper limb, ‘arm’ (and ‘hand’) is named by a distinct term in all languages.
- Universal #1501: All languages name ‘(finger)nail’ and ‘(toe)nail’.
A little light on the role of deep structure in semantic interpretation. National Science Foundation Report 26: II.1-II.13.
Anonymous (1771). Language. Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 2, 863- 880. Edinburgh: Bell & Macfarquhar.
On diachronic sources and synchronic patterns: An investigation into the origin of linguistic universals. Language 67: 1-33.
Binder-anaphors and the diachrony of case displacement. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 431-450.
Is a rhythm-based typology possible? A study of the role of prosody in phonological typology. KontRI Working Paper (Universität Konstanz) 21.
Cited in:
Silben- und akzentzählende Sprachen. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 7: 214-259.
Cited in:
Noun phrase internal case agreement in Russian. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 287-304.
Cited in:
- Universal #48: The noun phrase (NP) internal distribution of case between head noun and any agreeing constituents is determin
- Universal #49: Case and number agreement of attributive adjectives are determined independently: number agreement is controll
- Universal #54: If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise
Questions. Linguistic Inquiry 2: 153-166.
Incorporation: A Theory of Grammatical Function Changing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1492: In ditransitive constructions, the theme/direct object may incorporate, but the goal/indirect object may not.
- Universal #1641: Relational preverbs are primarily (though not exclusively) favoured in verb-final languages.
The Polysynthesis Parameter. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #8: If in a language the verb follows the nominal subject and the nominal object as the dominant order, the langua
- Universal #1319: Scrambling is limited to head-final contexts.
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1492: In ditransitive constructions, the theme/direct object may incorporate, but the goal/indirect object may not.
- Universal #1635: All polysynthetic languages will lack overt NP anaphors, at least as objects.
- Universal #1636: Polysynthetic languages should not have non-referential quantified NPs – that is, NPs comparable to ‘everyone’
- Universal #1637: In polysynthetic languages, interrogative phrases are constrained to appear in clause-initial position.
- Universal #1639: IF there is polysynthesis (essentially, noun incorporation and bound agreement/cross-reference markers for sub
- Universal #1640: Languages with productive noun incorporation must be of the head-marking type.
- Universal #1641: Relational preverbs are primarily (though not exclusively) favoured in verb-final languages.
- Universal #1642: For serial verb constructions, the languages where heads precede complements are far more prone to verb serial
- Universal #1921: The lack of semantically significant determiners seems to be a property of the polysynthetic languages as a cl
Linguistique générale et linguistique française. 2nd edition. Berne: Francke.
Cited in:
Agreement in Natural Language: Approaches, Theories, Descriptions. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Generalized quantifiers and natural language. Linguistics and Philosophy 4: 159-219.
Cited in:
- Universal #1203: Every natural language has syntactic constituents (called noun-phrases) whose semantic function is to express
- Universal #1204: Dislocated phrase universal:If a language allows phrases to occur in a dislocated position associated with a r
- Universal #1205: Determiner universal:Every natural language contains basic expressions (called determiners) whose semantic fun
- Universal #1206: Monotonicity correspondence universal:There is a simple NP which expresses the monotone decreasing quantifier
- Universal #1207: Monotonicity constraint:The simple NPs of any natural language express monotone quantifiers or conjunctions of
- Universal #1209: Persistent determiner constraint:Every persistent determiner of human language is monotone ¡ncreasing and weak
- Universal #1210: Constraint on negating self-dual and monotone decreasing quantifiers:If a language has a syntactic constructio
- Universal #1211: Dual quantifier universal:If a natural language has a basic determiner for each of D and d then these are sema
- Universal #1603: Every language has N’s and NPs of the type e → t (common nouns as predicates).
Rez’ja i Rez’jane. Slavjanskij sbornik (St. Petersburg) 3: 223-371.
Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan (1877 [1972]). Podrobnaja programma lekcij… v 1876-1877 uc. godu. Izvestija i ucenye zapiski imp. Kazanskogo universiteta 1877. Translated in Edward Stankiewicz (ed.), A Baudouin de Courtenay Anthology: The Beginnings of Structural Linguistics, 92-113. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Evaluative morphology: In search of universals. Studies in Language 21: 533-575.
Grammaire générale, ou Exposition raisonnée des éléments nécessaires du langage, pour servir de fondement à l’étude de toutes les langues. 2 vols. Paris: J. Barbou. (New, revised edition, Paris: Delalain, 1819. Reprint of 1767 edition, Stuttgart: Frommann, 1974.)
Cited in:
- Universal #238: If constituent order is rigid, all determined constituents precede their respective determining constituents;
- Universal #239: If constituent order is free, all potentially declinable kinds of nominal words in relationships of determinat
- Universal #245: If constituent order is free without limits, then nominal words are inflected, but not vice versa; if constitu
- Universal #972: The decision whether the governor (head) or the governee (dependent) is morphologically marked tends to be mad
Perceptual constraints and phonological change ? a study of nasal vowel height. Phonology Yearbook 3: 197-217.
Some patterns of occurrence and formation of syllable structures. Working Papers on Language Universals 6: 23-119.
Cited in:
- Universal #693: The occurrence of consonant-combinations in initial and final position of words implies their possibility in m
- Universal #1240: If a language has initial or final clusters, then it also has medial clusters.
- Universal #1241: Languages with uniform syllable division do not have VC.V division.
- Universal #1242: No language has uniform V.CCV division of two-segment clusters if it has final consonants.
- Universal #1243: Word-Terminal Condition: if an intersyllabic sequence is divisible into occurring word-initial and word-final
- Universal #1244: If a language’s only final margins are stops, then they are glottal stops.
- Universal #1245: No language without initial clusters has V.CCV division of two-segment clusters.
- Universal #1246: The likelihood of initial clusters is greater for languages with final consonants than for languages without f
- Universal #1247: The loss of all a language’s initial vowels (or prothesis of a consonant before them) is significantly less li
- Universal #1248: The loss of intervocalic consonants is a more frequently occurring process than loss of initial consonants; hi
- Universal #1249: The complete elimination of a language’s initial vowels, whether by loss or by consonant problems, is less lik
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1805: Syllables and words are more likely to contain obstruents syllable and word-initially, and sonorants finally.
- Universal #1806: Nasals tend to endure word-finally after obstruents have been lost.
Syllabic consonants. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 153-201.
Cited in:
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #925: If in a given language a syllabic consonant occurs in the phonological context X in root morphemes, then it oc
- Universal #926: If in a given language, syllabic consonants are created by syncope in stressed syllables, then they have been
- Universal #927: If in a given language, stressed syllabic consonants become non-syllabic or are lost, then nonstressed syllabi
- Universal #928:
- Universal #929: The source of syllabicity in syllabic consonants is always a vowel, either directly, when a vowel changes into
- Universal #930: A consonant may become syllabic only if it is an adjacent margin of a syncopated vowel.
- Universal #931:
- Universal #932: If a language contains syllabic stops or affricates, it contains syllabic fricatives.
- Universal #933:
- Universal #934:
- Universal #935: If a language possesses voiceless syllabic stops, then it possesses voiced syllabic stops.
- Universal #936:
- Universal #937: Only high vowels undergo consonantalization.
Das Burushaski: Schicksale einer zentralasiatischen Restsprache. In Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Jg. 1992, Bericht 1.
A cross-linguistic study on the perception and production of stress. M.A. thesis, UCLA. (Working Papers in Phonetics 47.)
Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
General principles of classification and nomenclature in folk biology. American Anthropologist 75: 214-242.
Retroflexion: An areal feature. Working Papers on Language Universals 13: 27-67
Cited in:
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1262: Unstressed vowels are more likely to assimilate than stressed vowels.
- Universal #1286: The total number of retroflexed consonants is never greater than that of the non-retroflexed apical consonants
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1799: Nasalization before intervocalic nasals was found to occur only if nasalization phenomena were already evident
The phonology of liquid consonants. Working Papers on Language Universals 16: 73-104.
Cited in:
- Universal #728: Laterals [liquids] tend to occur in the neighborhood of consonants whereas nonlaterals tend to occur in the ne
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1855: Nonlaterals (trills or flaps) have the property of lowering a preceding vowel.
- Universal #1856: If a lateral is velarized, it happens to have a lowering effect on all vowels.
- Universal #1857: The nonlateral has a noncentralizing or backing effect on a neighboring vowel.
- Universal #1858: The liquids tend to have a lateral quality while occurring in the neighborhood of (especially before) front vo
- Universal #1859: Languages tend to have laterals after grave consonants and nonlaterals after acute.
- Universal #1860: Consonantality of a neighboring sound has the effect of changing a nonlateral into a lateral whereas the nonco
- Universal #1861: The consonantality of a neighboring sound has the effect of changing a nontrill (flap or tap) into a trill whe
- Universal #1862: A trill is found to occur in a stressed position, to denote emphasis, or in slow speech. As against this, a fl
- Universal #1863: A retroflexed flap (out-flap) and also other retroflexed consonants have a retroflexing or centralizing influe
- Universal #1864: The alveolar and retroflex stops generally tend to become taps and flaps intervocalically.
- Universal #1865: The liquids tend to become devoiced in the final and also in the initial position. They further become spirant
Two studies in nasalization. In Ferguson, Hyman, & Ohala (eds.) 1975, 27-84.
Cited in:
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1091: It is clear that the general tendency for a cluster of consonant and nasal is either to (i) retain the nasalit
- Universal #1262: Unstressed vowels are more likely to assimilate than stressed vowels.
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1799: Nasalization before intervocalic nasals was found to occur only if nasalization phenomena were already evident
Roots of Language. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
Povelitel’nye predlozenija: problemy teorii.[Imperative sentences: theoretical problems.] In Viktor S. Xrakovskij (ed.), Tipologija imperativnyx konstrukcij, 5-49. Sankt-Peterburg: Nauka.
Bitransitive clauses. Working Papers on Language Universals 13: 1-26.
Cited in:
- Universal #1278: The same nuclear tagmeme which occurs initially in the unitransitive dominant order will occur initially in th
- Universal #1279: If the dominant unitransitive order is SVO, the dominant bitransitive order will be either SVDO or SVOD.
- Universal #1280: If a language of the unitransitive SVO type has different relative orders depending upon whether the direct ob
- Universal #1281: If the direct object is marked in the unitransitive clause, the indirect object will be marked in the bitransi
- Universal #1282: If the direct object is marked in the bitransitive clause, it is also marked in the unitransitive clause.
- Universal #1283: If the indirect object is marked in the prototype bitransitive clause, it is also marked in a non-prototype bi
- Universal #1284: If the direct object is marked when its referent is inanimate, it is also marked when its referent is animate;
- Universal #1285: If the direct object is marked when its referent is indefinite, it is also marked when its referent is definit
Progressive aspect. Working Papers on Language Universals 18: 1-35.
Cited in:
- Universal #478: There are never more tense distinctions in progressive than in non-progressive.
- Universal #479: If the same progressive constructions are used for present and for non-present tenses, the progressive aspect
- Universal #480: If the head (lexical) verb in a progressive verb phrase is marked for tense, it is marked as present tense.
- Universal #481: There is never a special future progressive form unless there is a past progressive form as well.
- Universal #482: If there is a word-level progressive form for some tenses and there are phrase-level progressive constructions
- Universal #483: If progressive is signaled by a suffix, any tense, mood, or person suffixes will follow the progressive suffix
Datives and allatives. In Hammond, Moravcsik, & Wirth (eds.) 1988, 173-191.
Cited in:
- Universal #154: If the same adposition is used as a marker for both object and dative, including such non-prototypic datives a
- Universal #155: Overt marking in the unitransitive clause implies overt dative marking. Any suspension of dative marking impli
- Universal #156: Overt object marking in the bitransitive clause other than marking identical to instrumental implies overt dat
- Universal #157: If an adposition occurs as both object marker and allative marker, it also occurs as dative marker.
- Universal #158: If an adposition occurs as both dative marker and locative marker, it also occurs as allative marker.
- Universal #159: If object and transitive-clause allative are marked identically, even non-adpositionally, then dative is also
- Universal #160: If dative and transitive-clause locative are identically marked, even non-adpositionally, then dative* is also
- Universal #161: No language suspends overt marking of dative or spatial functions because the referent is non-specific or inde
- Universal #162: No language uses different dative or spatial markers for partitives.
- Universal #163: No language uses different dative or spatial function markers for affirmative and negative clause.
- Universal #164: No language signals completive or incompletive aspect by the form of its dative, allative, or locative marking
The syllable in phonological theory. In J. A. Goldsmith (ed.), The Handbook of Phonological Theory, 206-244. Oxford: Blackwell.
L’indo-aryen. Paris.
Language. London: Allen & Unwin.
Suffixaufnahme in Kartvelian. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 151-215.
Cited in:
- Universal #17: If Suffixaufnahme occurs with the head present, it also occurs with the head missing.
- Universal #29: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs without pause between the head and the attributive nominal, it also
- Universal #38: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in headed and headless NPs at one time and at some later time it has Suf
- Universal #39: If a language has Suffixaufnahme with both preposed and postposed attributives at one time and at some earlier
- Universal #40: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in NPs where the attributive and the head are prosodically separated and
Agreement and pro-drop in some dialects of English. Linguistics 36: 71-98.
Intonation across languages. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, 471-524.
Cited in:
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #696: The two intonation shapes that are found everywhere are fall and rise, with their targets, low and high. The m
- Universal #1003: Terminal intonations are almost universally low or falling for finality and assertion, and high or rising for
Principles and parameters in prosodic phonology. Linguistics 21: 249-280.
Morphology: An International Handbook zur Flexion und Wortbildung. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Reconstruction and linguistic method, part I. Word 1: 83-94.
Wege zur Universalienforschung. Sprachwissenschaftliche Beiträge zum 60. Geburtstag von Hansjakob Seiler. Tübingen: Narr.
General principles of human anatomical partonomy and speculations on the growth of partonomic nomenclature. American Ethnologist 3: 400-424.
Cited in:
- Universal #1184: If in a given language there is a separate term for ‘leg’ (as opposed to ‘foot’), then there is also a term fo
- Universal #1185: If there is a separate term for ‘foot’, then there is also one for ‘hand’, but not vice versa.
- Universal #1186: In all languages known so far there appear to be labels for ‘toe’ and ‘finger’. But if there are terms for ind
Where do cardinal direction terms come from? Anthropological Linguistics 25: 121-161.
Language Living Things: Uniformities in Folk Classification and Naming. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Figurative language in a universalist perspective. American Ethnologist 8: 596-615.
Cited in:
- Universal #616: If a language encodes fewer basic colour categories, then there are strict limitations on which categories it
- Universal #1180: Terms for ‘pupil (of the eye)’ are most likely to be derived from nouns denoting a small human like a baby, or
- Universal #1181: There are contrasting transfer patterns for thumbs and big toes on the one hand and the remaining digits on th
- Universal #1182: The notion ‘muscle’ is expressed predominantly by using small mammals as structural templates. As in the case
- Universal #1183: For the concept ‘testicle’, by far the most widespread source is provided by terms for ‘egg’, alternative opti
[Burnet, James] (1773-92). Of the Origin and Progress of Language. 6 volumes. Edinburgh & London: Kincaid et al.
[Burnet, James] (1779-99). Antient Metaphysics. 6 volumes. Edinburgh & London: Balfour et al.
Morphological factors determining fixed accent placement. Bulletin of the Georgian Academy of Sciences 153: 312-315.
Piksirebuli makhvilis t’ip’ologia. [Typology of fixed accent.] Candidate dissertation, Tbilisi State University.
The Consonant Phonotactics of Georgian.Utrecht: LOT, Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics. (=Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden.)
Cited in:
- Universal #1963: ... the hypothesis that a language which has CiCj clusters will also have CiCj stems ...
- Universal #1964: If a language has the basic word-form stem+suffix, the accent will fall on a non-final syllable. If a language
- Universal #1967: Vowel co-occurrence displays an associative tendency.Consonant co-occurrence displays a dissociative tendency.
- Universal #1968: Within lexical morphemes of the shape C1VC2V, the sonority of C1 tends to be less than that of C2, with C1 ten
- Universal #1969: Stem: CV
- Universal #1971: The Compensatory Principle:The co-occurrence patterns of hetero-organic consonants across a vowel are such tha
Diagrammatic iconicity in the stem-inflection relations. Haiman (ed.) 1985, 11-47.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #267: If a language has Person and Number inflection, then it also has Tense, Aspect and Mood inflection.
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #601: VO languages are evenly divided between those with no inflection and those with the full array of inflection.
- Universal #840: VSO languages tend to have Person-Number inflection.
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1309: If a language is postpositional, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1310: If a language has SOV, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1311: If a language is postpositional, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than
- Universal #1312: If a language has SOV, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1314: Valence affixes on verb (i.e. intransitive/transitive/ditransitive affixes), if there are any, are suffixed wi
- Universal #1315: If a language has SOV, causative affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with more than chance frequency.
- Universal #1682: There is a strong tendency for agent-oriented modality to be expressed by verbs, auxiliaries or non-bound part
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1747: If a language has person marking affixes on verb (direct object), they are prefixed with more than chance freq
Morphology. A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. (Typological Studies in Language, 9.) Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #267: If a language has Person and Number inflection, then it also has Tense, Aspect and Mood inflection.
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #601: VO languages are evenly divided between those with no inflection and those with the full array of inflection.
- Universal #840: VSO languages tend to have Person-Number inflection.
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1309: If a language is postpositional, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1310: If a language has SOV, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1311: If a language is postpositional, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than
- Universal #1312: If a language has SOV, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1314: Valence affixes on verb (i.e. intransitive/transitive/ditransitive affixes), if there are any, are suffixed wi
- Universal #1315: If a language has SOV, causative affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with more than chance frequency.
- Universal #1682: There is a strong tendency for agent-oriented modality to be expressed by verbs, auxiliaries or non-bound part
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1747: If a language has person marking affixes on verb (direct object), they are prefixed with more than chance freq
The grammaticalization of zero: Asymmetries in tense and aspect systems. In William Pagliuca (ed.), Perspectives on Grammaticalization, 235-254. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #279: In all languages: if one of the forms of the imperative coincides with a pure (not overtly marked) root, then
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #1198: With a few exceptions, if a language has inflectional tense or aspect, it will have a past or perfective gram.
- Universal #1199: With a few exceptions, if a language has no inflectional tense or aspect, it will have an anterior or completi
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1682: There is a strong tendency for agent-oriented modality to be expressed by verbs, auxiliaries or non-bound part
- Universal #1683: Progressives (which develop from locative, postural or movement verb constructions) tend to develop into imper
- Universal #1684: Anteriors (or perfects, which develop from stative auxiliaries plus a past participle, or from dynamic verbs s
- Universal #1685: Habitual grams tend to come from verbs meaning ‘live’, ‘know’ or ‘be used to’.
The creation of tense and aspect systems in the languages of the world. Studies in Language 13: 50-103.
On the asymmetries in the affixation of grammatical material. In Croft, Denning, & Kemmer (eds.) 1990, 1-42.
Cited in:
- Universal #279: In all languages: if one of the forms of the imperative coincides with a pure (not overtly marked) root, then
- Universal #1593: Verb-final languages exhibit a very strong postposing tendency which leads to their preponderance of suffixes.
- Universal #1594: Verb-medial languages exhibit a slight preposing tendency, but a strong tendency not to affix preposed materia
The Evolution of Grammar. Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #279: In all languages: if one of the forms of the imperative coincides with a pure (not overtly marked) root, then
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #1198: With a few exceptions, if a language has inflectional tense or aspect, it will have a past or perfective gram.
- Universal #1199: With a few exceptions, if a language has no inflectional tense or aspect, it will have an anterior or completi
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1682: There is a strong tendency for agent-oriented modality to be expressed by verbs, auxiliaries or non-bound part
- Universal #1683: Progressives (which develop from locative, postural or movement verb constructions) tend to develop into imper
- Universal #1684: Anteriors (or perfects, which develop from stative auxiliaries plus a past participle, or from dynamic verbs s
- Universal #1685: Habitual grams tend to come from verbs meaning ‘live’, ‘know’ or ‘be used to’.
General Principles of the Structure of Language, 2 volumes. London: Trübner. (2nd edition, 1892.)
Cited in:
- Universal #363: (a)The utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from the chest (as in aspirates, affricates,
- Universal #654: Unlimited consonant clustering correlates with VS order, limitations on consonant clustering correlate with SV
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
Philosophiæ rationalis partes quinque. Videlicet: Grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica, poetica, historiographia, iuxta propria principia. Suorum operum toumus, Volume I, Paris: Ioannes du Bray.
Explaining universals and their exceptions. In Elizabeth C. Traugott, B. LaBrum, & S. Shepherd (eds.), Papers from the IVth Inernational Conference on Historical Linguistics, 17-26. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #758: Preferences regarding point of articulation for glottalic obstruents are as follows: injectives tend to have f
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #839: If there is a voiceless l, there will be a voiced l as well.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1815: The presence of uvular stops in a language implies the presence of velar stops.
Inflectional complexity in relation to phonology. Te Reo 27: 29-46.
The differentiation of dialects. Paper read at the summer meeting of the LSA, August 1973.
Alienability, inalienability and nominal classification. Berkeley Linguistics Society 15: 24-36.
Cited in:
- Universal #136: [IF one of the relations of (i) alienability, (ii) inalienability, and (iii) classification is realized forma
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
Vowel length variation as a function of the voicing consonant environment. Phonetica 22: 129-159.
Nasals and nasalization in Chinese: An exploration in phonological universals. Doctoral dissertaion, University of California, Berkeley.
Cited in:
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1287:
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
Predicative power in phonological description. Lingua 32: 173-191.
Cited in:
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1287:
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
On the formal expression of natural rules in phonology. Journal of Linguistics 9: 223-249.
Cited in:
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1287:
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
Metarules and universal constraints in phonological theory. In Luigi Heilmann (ed.), Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of Linguists, vol. 2, 909-924. Bologna: Il Mulino.
Cited in:
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1090: We have not found a single instance in which a nasalized low vowel is lower than the corresponding oral vowel,
- Universal #1287:
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1608: There is a tendency for back vowels to nasalize more readily than front ones.
- Universal #1674: If a language has palatalized a consonant before [e], then it must necessarily have previously palatalized thi
- Universal #1768: The velars are most likely to undergo weakening, then the dentals, and lastly the labials, in that order.
- Universal #1769: The basic direction of merging of the consonant endings is unmistakable: invariably from the front to the back
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1792: Vowel Length Parameter:Vowel nasalization and N-deletion, as seperate and successive processes, occur preferen
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
On the typology of wh-questions. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
A null theory of phrase and compound stress. Linguistic Inquiry 24: 239-297.
Adverbs and Functional Heads. A Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Locationals: A study of the relations between ‘existential’, ‘locative’, and ‘possessive’ constructions. Working Papers on Language Universals 3: L1-L37.
A cross linguistic investigation of vowel nasalization: An instrumental study. In Ferguson, Hyman, & Ohala (eds.) 1975, 133-152.
Patterns of soft palate movement in six languages. Journal of Phonetics 4: 337-351.
An investigation of initial and final distributions of consonants in a sample of world languages. In Rood (ed.) 1984, 102-113.
Cited in:
- Universal #1803: There is a tendency for obstruents to be devoiced more often finally then initially.
- Universal #1804: There is a tendency for consonants to front initially and back finally.
- Universal #1805: Syllables and words are more likely to contain obstruents syllable and word-initially, and sonorants finally.
- Universal #1806: Nasals tend to endure word-finally after obstruents have been lost.
A Survey of the Phonology of the Feature [± nasal]. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Los Angeles.
The status of nasalized continuants. In Marie Huffman & Rena Krakow (eds.), Nasals, Nasalization, and the Velum (Phonetics and Phonology, 5), 329-267. New York: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #1605: Nasal harmony hierarchy:Vowels > Semivowels > Liquids > Fricatives > Obstruent Stops.This hierarchy reflects t
- Universal #1610: Hierarchy of nasalization spread:vowels, h, glottal stop > oral glides > liquids.
- Universal #1612: Permeability of classes of consonants to nasalization:vowels > {[h], glottal stop (=laryngeal segments)} > w,
- Universal #1613: Cross-linguistically, languages would not be expected to exhibit phonological constrasts such as [-nasal] lary
Cohn Abigail (1993b). A survey of the phonological feature [±nasal]. Working Papers of the Cornell Phonetics Laboratory 8: 141-203.
Fast vs. slow languages: Comments on the structure of discourse and the evolution of language. Papiere zur Linguistik 28: 27-51.
The structure of internally headed relative clauses. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 5: 277-302.
Cited in:
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #1596: The restriction of internally headed relative clauses to OV languages implies that these relative clauses are
- Universal #1597: Internally headed relative clauses occur only in languages manifesting null anaphora (that is, the use of null
Head movement and long distance reflexives. Linguistic Inquiry 25: 355-406.
Causatives and universal grammar. Transactions of the Philological Society 1974: 1-32.
Cited in:
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #914: The grammatical encoding of the causee proceeds as follows: the causee occupies the highest (leftmost) positio
- Universal #1066: In case of polite plural subject, ... more verb-like predicates tend to agree with features of the surface sub
- Universal #1292: Of the four fundamental arithmetical operations --addition and its inverse, subtraction, and multiplication an
Polite plurals and predicate agreement. Language 51: 406-418
Cited in:
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #914: The grammatical encoding of the causee proceeds as follows: the causee occupies the highest (leftmost) positio
- Universal #1066: In case of polite plural subject, ... more verb-like predicates tend to agree with features of the surface sub
- Universal #1292: Of the four fundamental arithmetical operations --addition and its inverse, subtraction, and multiplication an
The syntax of causative constructions: Cross language similarities and divergences. In Masayoshi Shibatani (ed.), The Grammar of Causative Constructions (Syntax and Semantics, 6), 261-312. New York: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #914: The grammatical encoding of the causee proceeds as follows: the causee occupies the highest (leftmost) positio
- Universal #1275: Categories which can be used as a ‘perfect of result’ (i.e. to say that something has happened that has a resu
- Universal #1883: Deverbalization Hierarchy:If a verbal form inflects for tense-aspect-modality (TAM) like a predicated verb, th
The syntax of action nominals: A cross-language study. Lingua 40: 177-201.
Cited in:
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #914: The grammatical encoding of the causee proceeds as follows: the causee occupies the highest (leftmost) positio
- Universal #1275: Categories which can be used as a ‘perfect of result’ (i.e. to say that something has happened that has a resu
- Universal #1883: Deverbalization Hierarchy:If a verbal form inflects for tense-aspect-modality (TAM) like a predicated verb, th
Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cited in:
- Universal #618: Accessibility Hierarchy:Subj> DO > IO > Obl > Gen > OComp.If a language can form relative clauses on a given p
- Universal #620: Whenever a language has both a more explicit and less explicit way of forming relative clauses, then the more
- Universal #621: If a language can relativize a subordinate direct object, then it can relativize a main clause direct object.
- Universal #914: The grammatical encoding of the causee proceeds as follows: the causee occupies the highest (leftmost) positio
- Universal #915: Agreement is often carried out in such a way that the verb agrees with noun phrases higher in animacy, and fai
- Rara #90: accusative alignment for proper names and kin terms (as used for address), tripartite alignment for singular p
Universals in the syntax of cardinal numerals. Lingua 56: 61-74.
Cited in:
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #1365: If the multiplier follows the multiplicand in a particular numeral, it follows in all higher numerals which ar
The agreement hierarchy. Journal of Linguistics 15: 203-224.
Hierarchies, Targets and Controllers: Agreement Patterns in Slavic. London: Croom Helm.
Agreement: A partial specification based on Slavonic data. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 23-54.
Cited in:
- Universal #579: The Agreement HierarchyIf agreement features are optionally referential-semantic or syntactic, the likelihood
- Universal #581: If stacked targets (such as attributive adjective and a determiner) may differ in agreeing on a referential-se
- Rara #3: (a) two basic colour terms for BLUE and LIGHT BLUE (b) and at the same time none for PURPLE
Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #511: Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #579: The Agreement HierarchyIf agreement features are optionally referential-semantic or syntactic, the likelihood
- Universal #581: If stacked targets (such as attributive adjective and a determiner) may differ in agreeing on a referential-se
- Universal #1882: It seems that polarity [in gender/number systems] is never complete (i.e., polarity is never the sole configur
- Universal #2001: And some [semantic] criteria appear never to define a gender completely. ... I have not found a language of an
- Universal #2002: Note that there are no syntactic systems [of gender assignment] [only semantic, morphological, and phonologica
- Universal #2003: There is no purely morphological system [of gender assignment]. First, they always have a semantic core. ... t
- Universal #2004: An obvious suggestion for a universal here [where gender appears in only one person] would be that if a langua
- Universal #2005: For the simple cardinal numerals, as their arithmetical value increases, so the possibility of agreement in ge
- Universal #2006: If a particular target type can mark agreement in gender then in many languages it must. ... This may be calle
- Universal #2007: It appears likely that there are generalizations [concerning "neutral agreement"] of the type "if infinitive p
- Universal #2008: The Agreement Hierarchy:attributive < predicate < relative pronoun < personal pronoun(i) Possible agreement pa
- Universal #2009: ... it seems that as long as gender agreement is retained in some targets, the personal pronouns will be one o
- Universal #2010: [When the controller consists of conjoined NPs and they have features which require resolution,] in person res
- Universal #2011: The type of gender resolution system found is constrained by the [gender] assignment system of the language. L
- Rara #86: determiners and modifiers agreeing in all relevant agreement categories (gender, number, case) with only one o
- Rara #145: of all cardinal numerals, only that for 'four' agreeing in gender
- Rara #146: different forms of the verb 'to say' depending on the sex of the person whose speaking is reported:bada '[a ma
A typology of number systems. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/15.
Gender agreement in Chichewa. Studies in African Linguistics 18: 1-38.
The position of the head and the domain of scrambling. In Palek (ed.) 1997, 57-90.
Cited in:
Relational preverbs in some languages of the Americas: Typological and historical perspectives. Language 64: 312-344.
Subordination. Ms, revised version of PhD dissertation. University of Verona.
Cited in:
- Universal #1878: Implicational patterns in the cross-linguistic coding of subordination:(a) If there is elimination of Aspect,
- Universal #1879: Co-occurrence tendencies in the cross-linguistic coding of subordination, where ‘>>’ means ‘more frequent than
- Universal #1880: Frequency hierarchy for the cross-linguistic coding of subordination:elimination of tense/aspect/mood >> elimi
- Universal #1881: In the coding of subordination, elimination of Tense/Aspect/Mood distinctions takes place when the other pheno
- Universal #1883: Deverbalization Hierarchy:If a verbal form inflects for tense-aspect-modality (TAM) like a predicated verb, th
Agreement vs. case marking and direct objects. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 159-180.
Typology and Language Universals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #172: In languages with ergative/absolutive distinction, the frequency prediction holds: if the verb agrees with the
- Universal #488: If a language uses a non-zero case marking for a direct object on the animacy/definiteness hierarchies, then i
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Relations: The Cognitive Organization of Information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #12: If direct objects may control agreement (or take case marking) without doing so obligatorily, it will be the m
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #94: The (non)use of a copula conforms to a hierarchy of predication:Action word (verb) < Property word (adjective)
- Universal #396: If a language has a morphological means to indicate verbal modification (i.e., if a language has participles),
- Universal #518: If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
- Universal #521: Hierarchy of ergativity:In language L,conjunction reduction is ergative < coreferential deletion in purposive
- Universal #911: The Verbalization Hierarchy of Intransitive Main Predicates:Semantic: (activity) > property > class > location
- Universal #1656: If in a language finite and non-finite (attributive and/or argument) functions of a form appear to be equally
- Universal #1657: If in a language finite and non-finite (attributive and/or argument) functions of converbs are equally marked
- Universal #1658: If a language is non-tensed, the nominal predicate does not require a copula.
- Universal #1883: Deverbalization Hierarchy:If a verbal form inflects for tense-aspect-modality (TAM) like a predicated verb, th
Semantic universals in classifier systems. Word 45: 145-171.
Cited in:
- Universal #521: Hierarchy of ergativity:In language L,conjunction reduction is ergative < coreferential deletion in purposive
- Universal #1621: The implicational hierarchy of semantic distinctions for numeral classifier systems: Animate/Human: ?Kin/Statu
- Universal #1622: The implicational hierarchy of semantic distinctions for possessive classifier systems: The primary distinctio
- Universal #1623: The implicational hierarchy of semantic distinctions for predicate classifier systems: The primary distinction
- Universal #1624: The implicational hierarchy of semantic distinctions for noun class systems: Animacy is involved in all noun c
Autonomy and functionalist linguistics. Language 71: 490-532.
Cited in:
- Universal #94: The (non)use of a copula conforms to a hierarchy of predication:Action word (verb) < Property word (adjective)
- Universal #442: If the ANC is not of the SENT type, then the S of an intransitive ANC is always genitivized.
- Universal #913: If speech act constructions – constructions which indicate some feature of an illocutionary act – in certain s
- Universal #918: Hierarchy of incorporability:externally modifiable NP > backgrounded NP > demoted NP > nonreferential noun.If
Nordic Journal of Linguistics 18: 75-83.
Asymmetries in NP word order. Paper read at the International Symposium on Deixis and Quantification in Languages Spoken in Europe and North and Central Asia, May 23-25, Udmurt State University, Izhevsk (Russia).
Cited in:
- Universal #1928: If more than one modifier occurs before the noun, the order is always Dem < Num < Adj.
- Universal #1930: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
- Universal #1931: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
Studies in Typology and Diachrony: Papers Presented to Joseph H. Greenberg on his 75th Birthday. (Typological Studies in Language, 20.) Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #172: In languages with ergative/absolutive distinction, the frequency prediction holds: if the verb agrees with the
- Universal #488: If a language uses a non-zero case marking for a direct object on the animacy/definiteness hierarchies, then i
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
Nasal consonant systems. In Ferguson, Hyman, & Ohala (eds.) 1975, 153-166.
Cited in:
- Universal #1092: Nasal systems with more than two place of articulation contrasts usually have a palatal or velar nasal, or bot
- Universal #1093: Nearly all languages have contrasting labial and dental nasals.
- Universal #1094: Nasal stop systems do not have more place of articulation contrasts than corresponding oral stop systems.
- Universal #1095: If there are X stop and affricate positions, then the number of nasal positions will not exceed X.
- Universal #1096: Nasal stop systems always have voiced members.
- Universal #1097: If there is a contrast in glottal feature, length, or other secondary articulation, then that feature is also
- Universal #1098: Nasal consonants tend to share place of articulation properties with stop systems, and glottal features, sylla
Typology and universals of vowel systems. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 93-152.
Cited in:
- Universal #319: The number of height distinctions in a system is typically equal or greater than the number of backness distin
- Universal #688: All languages have the place distinctions of high and low and of front and back in their vowel systems; hence
- Universal #698:
- Universal #699:
- Universal #700:
- Universal #701:
- Universal #702: Languages with eight or more vowels have /e/.
- Universal #703: Languages with nine or more vowels generally have /o/.
- Universal #705: Languages with two or more interior vowels always have a high one.
- Universal #706: The number of vowels in a column of interior vowels cannot exceed the number in the front or back columns.
- Universal #707: The number of height distinctions in front vowels is equal to or greater than the number in back vowels.
- Universal #708: There is a tendency for high and low short vowels to be more central than the corresponding long vowels.
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #710: If a nasal vowel system is smaller than the corresponding basic vowel system, it is most often a mid vowel tha
- Universal #756: A contrast between five basic vowel qualities is the norm for a human language, and in general the most common
Le nombre duel en grec. Paris: Klincksieck.
The suffixing preference: A processing explanation. Linguistics 23: 723-758.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1309: If a language is postpositional, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1310: If a language has SOV, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1311: If a language is postpositional, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than
- Universal #1312: If a language has SOV, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1314: Valence affixes on verb (i.e. intransitive/transitive/ditransitive affixes), if there are any, are suffixed wi
- Universal #1315: If a language has SOV, causative affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with more than chance frequency.
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1747: If a language has person marking affixes on verb (direct object), they are prefixed with more than chance freq
Typology of sentence negation. Linguistics 17: 79-106.
Cited in:
- Universal #109: The most common position for negatives in SVO languages is between the subject and the verb, yielding S Neg V
- Universal #444: If a language is verb-initial, then the negative will precede the verb.
- Universal #683: If a language has dummy auxiliary Negative construction, then there must be another way of negation in this la
- Universal #685: If morphological Negation, then following factors are likely:a. portmanteau realization of Neg;b. prosodic uni
- Universal #686: If syntactic Negation, then the following factors are likely:a. moveability of Negation;b. prosodic independen
- Universal #687: Morphological Negation -- in particular suffixal Neg -- is more common in verb-final and free word order langu
Tense-Mood-Aspect Progress Report. Gothenburg Papers in Theoretical Linguistics 41.
Temporal distance: Remoteness distinctions in tense-aspect systems. In Brian Butterworth, Bernard Comrie, & Östen Dahl (eds.), Explanations for Language Universals, 105-122. Berlin: Mouton.
Cited in:
- Universal #1274: If there is one or more distinctions or remoteness in a tense-aspect system, and reference can be made to obje
- Universal #1275: Categories which can be used as a ‘perfect of result’ (i.e. to say that something has happened that has a resu
- Universal #1276: Categories which are used like the English pluperfect will tend to be nondistinct from remote past.
- Universal #1277: If narrative and non-narrative contexts differ with respect to the marking of temporal distance, it will be th
- Universal #1421: If there are separate forms for narrative and non-narrative past contexts, the non-narrative forms tend to be
- Universal #1422: It is almost always possible to use the least marked indicative verb from in a narrative context.
Dahl, Östen & Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm (forthcoming). Kinship in grammar. In Michael Herslund (ed.), Approaches to Possession. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Agent-patient languages and split case marking systems. Berkeley Linguistics Society 9: 37-46.
The Syntax of Anaphoric Binding. Stanford: CSLI.
A search for universals in the Finno-Ugric languages. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher 42: 9-17.
Cited in:
- Universal #659: The probability of homophony is inversely related to the number of principal phonemes and to the length of seq
- Universal #809: In all languages which have vowel harmony, the vowel ä exists.
- Universal #819: Diphthongs exist only in languages which have or had long vowels.
- Universal #1412: The higher the number of principle phonemes, the higher the probability of redundancy.
- Universal #1413: In interjections one or more marginal phonemes occur with a percentage which is characteristic only for princi
- Universal #1414: In all languages possessing the vowel ä, the a is articulated more backward (velar) than in languages which ha
- Universal #1415: If in a language only one member of a customary phoneme opposition exists, the existing member of the oppositi
A Select Catalogue of Language Universals. Bloomington: Eurolingua.
Cited in:
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #659: The probability of homophony is inversely related to the number of principal phonemes and to the length of seq
- Universal #809: In all languages which have vowel harmony, the vowel ä exists.
- Universal #813: Stress can be used for semantic contrasts only in non-monosyllabic languages.
- Universal #814: Languages with cumulative stress have reduced vowels.
- Universal #815: Languages with distributive stress have no reduced vowels.
- Universal #817: Long vowels (also diphthongs) and tone occur as a rule only in stressed syllables.
- Universal #818: Mora occurs only in non-monosyllabic tonal languages.
- Universal #819: Diphthongs exist only in languages which have or had long vowels.
- Universal #820: Voiced > voiceless neutralization takes place most commonly in final position and never intervocally.
- Universal #821:
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
Multiple case marking in Australian languages. Australian Journal of Linguistics 8: 1-47.
Aspiration, universals and the study of dead languages. Working Papers on Language Universals 15: 1-24.
Cited in:
- Universal #1080: Aspiration occurs most frequently after voiceless stops.
- Universal #1081: Apart from being much rarer than voiceless aspiration, these voiced stops with “murmured” aspiration generally
- Universal #1082: In languages with distinctive aspiration, when aspiration is phonemic, it is often more marked than when it is
- Universal #1083: Aspiration tends to be stronger in initial and/or pre-tonic position antevocalically.
- Universal #1084: Duration of aspiration varies according to place of articulation: k > t > p.
- Universal #1085: Where contrastive aspiration is neutralized before liquids and nasals, the occurring phone is not aspirated or
A word order typology of three member sentences. Actes du Xe Congrès International des Linguistes [Bucarest, Rumania, 28 August – 2 September 1967] 3: 551-555.
Towards a typology of theme and rheme. Akten des 12. Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Pavia, Band 1, 3-11. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
The ordering distribution of main and adverbial clauses in OV and VO languages. Abstract of paper read at the 3rd Biannual Meeting of the Association for Linguistic Typology, 25-28 August 1999, Amsterdam. Dixon R. M. W. (1977). Where have all the adjective gone? Studies in Language 1: 19-80. Reprinted in Dixon 1982: 1-62.
Ergativity. Language 55: 59-138.
Cited in:
- Universal #1: Grammatical systems with ergativity tend to have ergative-accusative splits.
- Universal #1107: If there is a bound vs. free split, the bound prefixes will be accusative, and case marking on free forms will
- Universal #1907: Pivotless languages favour isolating morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1908: Pure and mixed separatist languages prefer agglutinative morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1909: Cumulative languages prefer fusional morphology or rigid word order.
Where Have All the Adjectives Gone? And Other Essays in Syntax and Semantics. Berlin: Mouton.
Noun class and noun classification. In Colette Craig (ed.), Noun Classes and Categorization, 105-112. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #803: Languages that tend towards isolating (such as most of those in east and south-east Asia) most typically emplo
- Universal #804: Languages that have a complex morphological structure are more likely to show systems of noun classes.
- Universal #1107: If there is a bound vs. free split, the bound prefixes will be accusative, and case marking on free forms will
- Universal #1958: There can ... be [a] correlation between whether a language has grammatical noun classes or lexical noun class
The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #803: Languages that tend towards isolating (such as most of those in east and south-east Asia) most typically emplo
- Universal #896: Head-marking languages tend to have an adjective class of type (b), where adjectives are grammatically similar
- Universal #897: Dependent-marking languages tend to have an adjective class of type (a), where adjectives are grammatically si
- Universal #1106: Yet all human languages classify actions into two basic types: those involving one obligatory participant, whi
- Universal #1107: If there is a bound vs. free split, the bound prefixes will be accusative, and case marking on free forms will
- Universal #1907: Pivotless languages favour isolating morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1908: Pure and mixed separatist languages prefer agglutinative morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1909: Cumulative languages prefer fusional morphology or rigid word order.
Phraseological universals: theoretical and applied aspects. In Michel Kefer & Johan van der Auwera (eds.) 1992, 279-301.
Rhythm and the holistic organization of language structure. In John F. Richardson, Mitchell Marks, & Amy Chukerman (eds.), Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax, 337-353. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #893: Iambic vs. Troachaic phrase accent and its many correlatesSee Graphics
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #962: Vowel harmony and vowel reduction typically do not co-occur.
Typological regularities in postnominal relative clauses. In Fred R. Eckman (ed.), Current Themes in Linguistics: Bilingualism, Experimental Linguistics and Language Typologies, 163-194. Washington: Hemisphere.
Cited in:
- Universal #677: With few exceptions, postnominal relative clauses in VSO languages contain either (a) an initial relative part
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #830: Relative markers of the same form as interrogative pronouns are found only in postnominal ad-relatives* (and t
- Universal #841: In prenominal relative clauses there is never an obligatory clause-initial marker. (There may or may not be a
- Universal #842: Only postnominal clauses may contain an obligatory initial relative particle or nominal that is not generally
- Universal #1566: There are no relative pronouns (i.e., no strong pronouns moved to initial or final position) in prenominal rel
- Universal #1601: Languages with headless relative clauses seem always to be verb-final, often strictly so.
- Universal #1602: Languages with headless relative clauses tend to have powerful and productive patterns of nominalization which
Some universals of relative clause structure. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 4, 375-418.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #677: With few exceptions, postnominal relative clauses in VSO languages contain either (a) an initial relative part
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #680: If a language uses relative pronouns of interrogative form in ad-relative* clauses, then in that language inte
- Universal #681: Postnominal relative clauses contain relative pronouns only if the language allows (other) initial nonverbal e
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #824: While both prenominal and postnominal relative clauses may be formed by gapping, gapping is the overwhelmingly
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #826: If postnominal relative clauses contain a distinctive verbal affix, the verb appears in clause-initial positio
- Universal #827: If a relative clause contains an initial relative pronoun, it does not contain a personal pronoun form of the
- Universal #828: If a language places relative pronouns that are not interrogative in form in initial position in postnominal r
- Universal #829: If a language has correlative relative constructions, it does not have prenominal ad-relative* clauses.
- Universal #830: Relative markers of the same form as interrogative pronouns are found only in postnominal ad-relatives* (and t
- Universal #831: The most consistent OV languages (e.g. Japanese and Turkish) have prenominal relatives and no right-extraposed
- Universal #832: If in a language the verb normally precedes its objects, there are no left-extraposed relative clauses, and if
- Universal #833: If a language has right-extraposed relative clauses, then it also has either embedded or left-extraposed relat
Reflections on phonological typology. Acta Linguistica Academiae Scientiarium Hungaricae 29: 259-273.
Cited in:
- Universal #655: The consonant-vowel ratio is comparatively high in polysynthetic languages, where morphemes are comparatively
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #919: As the number of contrastive segments in a language increases, the average length of a word will decrease.
- Universal #949: The more a language is fusional, the more phonological rules are needed to serve morphological fusion.
- Universal #950: If either inflectional morphology or derivational morphology is served by prosodic rules of stress shift, then
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
- Universal #962: Vowel harmony and vowel reduction typically do not co-occur.
Typological aspects of natural morphology. Wiener Linguistische Gazette 35-36: 3-26.
Cited in:
- Universal #364: In flective and introflective languages word forms tend to be between two and three syllables long, agglutinat
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #367: Derivational affixes tend to have a more complex syllabic structure in agglutinative languages than in flectiv
- Universal #368: Whereas the phonological structure of affixes is very similar to the structure of stems in the agglutinative t
- Universal #369: Typically, agglutinative languages, where stems and affixes are bound together more loosely than in flective a
- Universal #370: In agglutinative languages casual or fast speech shows less phonological deletion, fusion, and weakening than
- Universal #389: Languages without inflectional gender are agglutinating, and vice versa.
- Universal #655: The consonant-vowel ratio is comparatively high in polysynthetic languages, where morphemes are comparatively
The positional tendencies of sentential noun phrases in universal grammar. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 25: 123-195.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #1118: VO languages are exceptionlessly Comp-initial. OV languages exemplify both final complementizers and initial c
- Universal #1654: Sentential NP Position Hierarchy:clause-final position > clause-initial position > clause-internal position.
- Universal #1671: In languages with an initial marker of subordination, sentential NPs cannot occur in clause-internal position,
- Universal #1672: There is a tendency for conjunctions (including comlementizers) to occur in clause-final position in SOV langu
Word order consistency and English. In Scott DeLancey & Russel Tomlin (eds.), Proceedings of the Second Annual Pacific Linguistics Conference, 97-106. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #60: If some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, then the language is one in which the qualifying adje
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #831: The most consistent OV languages (e.g. Japanese and Turkish) have prenominal relatives and no right-extraposed
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #968: VO languages exhibit a statistically greater tendency to place articles before the noun than OV languages do.T
- Universal #1021: ... verb-initial languages do exhibit a clear preference for N Gen order.
Object-verb order and adjective-noun order: Dispelling a myth. Lingua 74: 185-217.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #70: If a language has prepositions and any verb position other than SVO, then if the adjectives follows the noun,
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #72: If a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, the adjective follow
- Universal #74: If a language has Prep word order, then if the numeral follows the noun, the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #91: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the relative clause follows the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #109: The most common position for negatives in SVO languages is between the subject and the verb, yielding S Neg V
- Universal #110: There is a clear tendency for Rel N languages to be Adj N and for N Rel languages to be N Adj.
- Universal #111: For most languages, if V Adv, then N Adj.
- Universal #112: If the adverb occurs on the opposite side of the verb from the object, then the order of adjective and noun wi
- Universal #113: Adj Qual languages exhibit a clear tendency to be N Adj.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #441: In SOV languages the negation is commonly placed before or after the verb.
- Universal #444: If a language is verb-initial, then the negative will precede the verb.
- Universal #682: If there is double negation within a language, then the negatives normally precede and follow the verb.
- Universal #684: The main principles for the position of negatives:(a) they tend not to be separated from the verb by the subje
- Universal #920: Consistent OV languages are consistently left-branching (placing phrasal constituents before nonphrasal ones)
- Universal #1338: Prepositional Noun-Modifier Hierarchy (PrNMH): If a language is prepositional, then if Relative clause Noun or
- Rara #121: adjective after the noun, rather than mirroring the order of adverb relative to verb, where basic word order i
Universals of negative position. In Hammond, Moravcsik, & Wirth (eds.), 93-124.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #70: If a language has prepositions and any verb position other than SVO, then if the adjectives follows the noun,
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #72: If a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, the adjective follow
- Universal #74: If a language has Prep word order, then if the numeral follows the noun, the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #91: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the relative clause follows the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #109: The most common position for negatives in SVO languages is between the subject and the verb, yielding S Neg V
- Universal #110: There is a clear tendency for Rel N languages to be Adj N and for N Rel languages to be N Adj.
- Universal #111: For most languages, if V Adv, then N Adj.
- Universal #112: If the adverb occurs on the opposite side of the verb from the object, then the order of adjective and noun wi
- Universal #113: Adj Qual languages exhibit a clear tendency to be N Adj.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #441: In SOV languages the negation is commonly placed before or after the verb.
- Universal #444: If a language is verb-initial, then the negative will precede the verb.
- Universal #682: If there is double negation within a language, then the negatives normally precede and follow the verb.
- Universal #684: The main principles for the position of negatives:(a) they tend not to be separated from the verb by the subje
- Universal #920: Consistent OV languages are consistently left-branching (placing phrasal constituents before nonphrasal ones)
- Universal #1338: Prepositional Noun-Modifier Hierarchy (PrNMH): If a language is prepositional, then if Relative clause Noun or
- Rara #121: adjective after the noun, rather than mirroring the order of adverb relative to verb, where basic word order i
Article-noun order. Chicago Linguistic Society 25-1: 83-97.
Cited in:
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #965: ... definite articles are often synchronically identical with or clearly related to demonstratives which are a
- Universal #966: The more distinct the definite article form is from demonstratives, the more likely its position relative to t
- Universal #968: VO languages exhibit a statistically greater tendency to place articles before the noun than OV languages do.T
- Universal #969: Languages where indefinite articles are quite distinct from the numeral ‘one’ exhibit a statistical correlatio
- Universal #970: Plural words tend to follow the noun in OV languages and precede in VO languages.
- Universal #971: Plural words are most commonly found in languages which are isolating or head-marking.
Plural words. Linguistics 27: 865-895.
Cited in:
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #965: ... definite articles are often synchronically identical with or clearly related to demonstratives which are a
- Universal #966: The more distinct the definite article form is from demonstratives, the more likely its position relative to t
- Universal #968: VO languages exhibit a statistically greater tendency to place articles before the noun than OV languages do.T
- Universal #969: Languages where indefinite articles are quite distinct from the numeral ‘one’ exhibit a statistical correlatio
- Universal #970: Plural words tend to follow the noun in OV languages and precede in VO languages.
- Universal #971: Plural words are most commonly found in languages which are isolating or head-marking.
The Greenbergian word order correlations. Language 68: 81-138.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #108: In consistent OV languages, interrogative markers follow verbs, occupying final position in the sentence.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #502: In expressions of volition and purpose, a subordinate verbal form always follows the main verb as the normal o
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #514: There is no language in which the plural does not have some non-zero allomorphs, whereas there are languages i
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #671: Most question particles occur in sentence-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent) or in sentence-fina
- Universal #968: VO languages exhibit a statistically greater tendency to place articles before the noun than OV languages do.T
- Universal #970: Plural words tend to follow the noun in OV languages and precede in VO languages.
- Universal #1118: VO languages are exceptionlessly Comp-initial. OV languages exemplify both final complementizers and initial c
- Universal #1347: Adpositional phrases more often precede the verb in OV languages and more often follow the verb in VO language
- Universal #1348: In comparative structures (e.g. ‘taller than John’) there’s a correlation betweenVO order and adjective-marker
- Universal #1349: Manner adverbs overwhelmingly precede the verb in OV languages and generally follow the verb in VO languages.
- Universal #1350: Adverbs of manner overwhelmingly precede verbs in languages where adpositional phrases (PP = prepositional or
- Universal #1423: The predicate precedes copula in OV languages and follows it in VO languages.
Eckman, Fred R.(1974). Agentive and agentless passives. Working Papers on Language Universals 14: 59-74.
Universals, typologies and interlanguage. In William E. Rutherford (ed.), Language Universals and Second Language Acquisition, 79-105. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #412: Aspirated voiceless consonants (especially obstruents) occur more frequently then aspirated voiced ones (espec
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1344: If a language has voiced obstruents word-finally, then it also has voiceless obstruents word-finally.
- Universal #1426: If there are voiceless obstruents word-finally, then there are sonorant consonants word-finally.
Affectivity and gradient scope. CLS 17: 38-44.
Polarized auxiliaries. In Frank Heny & Barry Richards (eds.), Linguistic Categories and Related Puzzles, Volume 1, 49-68. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Word-form borrowing in indefinites: Romani evidence. STUF 54: 126-147.
Cited in:
- Universal #1938: If there is a word-form loan of other than negative indefinite (excluding determiners), then it is likely that
- Universal #1939: If there is a word-form loan of an impersonal indefinite, then it is likely that there will be a word-form loa
- Universal #1940: If there is a word-form loan of a local indefinite, then it is likely that there will be a word-form loan of a
Hierarchies and phonological weakening. Lingua 43: 55-64.
Cited in:
- Universal #1765: Environmental hierarchy of consonantal weakening:initial ⇒ > intervocalic ⇒ final.If there is conson
- Universal #1766: Hierarchy of major-class and manner features in the context of consonantal weakening: Ø < glides < liquids <
- Universal #1767: Back consonants (velars) are more likely to undergo deletion than front consonants (labials and dentals).
Formal and functional aspects of the development from passive to ergative systems. In Masayoshi Shibatani (ed.), Passive and Voice, 441-491. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Multiple case in Kayardild: Anti-iconic suffix ordering and the diachronic filter. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 396-430.
Cited in:
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #41: If a nominal has two or more affixes at one time and at an earlier time one of those was not present, it is th
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Rara #48: words taking as many as four cases simultaneously
The true status of grammatical object affixes: Evidence from Bininj Gun-wok. In Evans & Sasse (eds.) 2002, 15-50.
Problems of Polysynthesis. (Studia typologica, 4.) Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
Reflexivization: A Study in Universal Syntax. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkley.
Menzerath’s law and the constant flow of linguistic information. In Reinhard Köhler & Burghard B. Rieger (eds.), Contributions to Quantitative Linguistics, 11-31. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Psychische Präsenzzeit und Selbstorganisation von Sprache. In Karl H. Ramers, Heinz Vater, & Henning Wode (eds.), Universale phonologische Strukturen und Prozesse, 151-167. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Selbstorganisation und Natürliche Typologie. Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung 48: 32-47.
Assumptions about nasals: A sample study in phonological universals. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, 53-60.
Cited in:
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #795: No language has Secondary Nasal Consonants unless it has one or more Primary Nasal Consonants.
- Universal #796: In a given language, the number of Secondary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of Primary Nasa
- Universal #820: Voiced > voiceless neutralization takes place most commonly in final position and never intervocally.
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #939: Secondary nasal consonants are, apart from borrowing and analogical formations, always the result of diachroni
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #943: Nasal vowels, apart from borrowing and analogical formations, always result from the loss of a Primary Nasal C
- Universal #944: A nasal syllabic phoneme, apart from borrowings and analogical formations, always results from the loss of a v
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
- Universal #1094: Nasal stop systems do not have more place of articulation contrasts than corresponding oral stop systems.
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
Verbs of ‘being’ in Bengali, with a note on Amharic. In John W. M. Verhaar (ed.), The Verb ‘Be’ and its Synonyms: Philosophical and Grammatical Studies, 5: Urdu / Turkish / Bengali /Amharic / Indonesian / Telugu / Estonian, 74-114. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Cited in:
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1608: There is a tendency for back vowels to nasalize more readily than front ones.
- Universal #1609: Hierarchy of regressive nasalization:N# > N[+continuant] > N[-continuant] > N[+syllabic]. If vowels are nasali
- Universal #1972: Every language has at least one set of forms or constructions whose primary function (or one of several major
- Universal #1973: Every language has at least one set of forms or constructions whose primary function (or one of several major
- Universal #1974: In a given language the grammatical categories of the verb (e.g., person, voice, mood, tense, negation) may be
- Universal #1975: There is a tendency for the existential, copulative, and verb-category carrying dummy elements of a language (
- Universal #1976: There are severe limitations on the kinds of synchronic patterns and diachronic restructurings which may occur
- Universal #1977: Tenseless or present-tense copulative expressions connecting nouns are more likely to vary diachronically betw
- Universal #1978: An existential or copulative element tends to be omitted more often in a construction which involves a full pr
- Universal #1979: A grammatical element is less likely to be omitted the greater the ambiguity which would result from its omiss
- Universal #1980: Existential verbs of indefinite subjects tend toward clause-initial position.
- Universal #1981: When a language with a full copula begins to lose it, or when a language with a zero copula begins to develop
- Universal #1982: When a language with zero copula inserts a pro-copula it does so between the subject and complement regardless
- Universal #1983: In a language with optional omission of a copula (under the conditions of , there is a tendency for the optio
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
- Universal #1988: ... from the fact that subordinate clauses precede, it might be predicted that quotations would precede the qu
- Universal #1989: If an Ex or Cop is grammatically unique, i.e., lacks criterial features of any major word class in the languag
- Universal #1990: If Ex and Cop are lexically separate in the present tense, they tend to share a single past tense.
- Universal #1991: The negative of past tense forms of Ex and/or Cop tends to be more regular in formation than the present-tense
- Universal #1992: If Ex and Cop are lexically separate, and they are in a suppletive relation with verbs meaning 'become' and 's
- Universal #1993: In an SOV language with Ex and Cop lexically separate, the Ex tends to be used as an auxiliary combining with
Universals of nasality. Working Papers on Languages Universals 14: 1-16.
Cited in:
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #943: Nasal vowels, apart from borrowing and analogical formations, always result from the loss of a Primary Nasal C
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1103: If a language has nasal vowels, it will have at least three, one of which is always a low vowel [ã].
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1608: There is a tendency for back vowels to nasalize more readily than front ones.
- Universal #1609: Hierarchy of regressive nasalization:N# > N[+continuant] > N[-continuant] > N[+syllabic]. If vowels are nasali
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
Universal tendencies and ‘normal’ nasality. In Ferguson, Hyman, & Ohala (eds.) 1975, 175-196.
Cited in:
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1094: Nasal stop systems do not have more place of articulation contrasts than corresponding oral stop systems.
- Universal #1102: If a language has no consonant clusters, the position of minimum contrast is word-final.
- Universal #1103: If a language has nasal vowels, it will have at least three, one of which is always a low vowel [ã].
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1976: There are severe limitations on the kinds of synchronic patterns and diachronic restructurings which may occur
Phonological processes. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 403-442.
Cited in:
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #1009: ... across-the-board spirantization processes tend to start with labials and velars and then spread to dentals
- Universal #1010: No matter which direction the process ( d⇔ð, t⇔† ) is going, the stop outcome is favoured by word-
- Universal #1011: Pidginization processes tend to replace fricatives other than s by stops.
- Universal #1869: There is a "tone of voice" appropriate for talking to young children:(i) overall higher pitch and/or exaggerat
- Universal #1870: Baby talk has shorter sentences, fewer subordinate clauses, fewer grammatical relations, more repetitions than
- Universal #1871: Every speech community seems to have a small lexicon of words used primarily with young children. The words of
- Universal #1872: Baby talk is also characterized by:high percentage of questions;frequent use of tags;here-and-now semantics;hi
- Universal #1873: The most striking – and apparently universal – variability is in what can be called "degree of babyishness". C
- Universal #1874: Core items of the baby talk register tend to persist for long periods of time.
- Universal #1875: Like other registers, baby talk or selected features of it may be extended to secondary uses, e.g. (i) to sugg
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1976: There are severe limitations on the kinds of synchronic patterns and diachronic restructurings which may occur
- Universal #1977: Tenseless or present-tense copulative expressions connecting nouns are more likely to vary diachronically betw
- Universal #1979: A grammatical element is less likely to be omitted the greater the ambiguity which would result from its omiss
- Universal #1981: When a language with a full copula begins to lose it, or when a language with a zero copula begins to develop
Talking to children: A search for universals. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 1, 203-224.
Cited in:
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #1009: ... across-the-board spirantization processes tend to start with labials and velars and then spread to dentals
- Universal #1010: No matter which direction the process ( d⇔ð, t⇔† ) is going, the stop outcome is favoured by word-
- Universal #1011: Pidginization processes tend to replace fricatives other than s by stops.
- Universal #1869: There is a "tone of voice" appropriate for talking to young children:(i) overall higher pitch and/or exaggerat
- Universal #1870: Baby talk has shorter sentences, fewer subordinate clauses, fewer grammatical relations, more repetitions than
- Universal #1871: Every speech community seems to have a small lexicon of words used primarily with young children. The words of
- Universal #1872: Baby talk is also characterized by:high percentage of questions;frequent use of tags;here-and-now semantics;hi
- Universal #1873: The most striking – and apparently universal – variability is in what can be called "degree of babyishness". C
- Universal #1874: Core items of the baby talk register tend to persist for long periods of time.
- Universal #1875: Like other registers, baby talk or selected features of it may be extended to secondary uses, e.g. (i) to sugg
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1976: There are severe limitations on the kinds of synchronic patterns and diachronic restructurings which may occur
- Universal #1977: Tenseless or present-tense copulative expressions connecting nouns are more likely to vary diachronically betw
- Universal #1979: A grammatical element is less likely to be omitted the greater the ambiguity which would result from its omiss
- Universal #1981: When a language with a full copula begins to lose it, or when a language with a zero copula begins to develop
K voprosu ob ierarxiceskom uporjadocivanii lic. Vydelennost’ 2-go lica. Gipoteza jazykovoj korreljacii. [Towards hierarchical ordering of persons. 2nd person salience. Hypothesis of linguistic correlation.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 4: 85-91.
Universal’nye anomalii licnyx metoimenij. [Universal anomalies of personal pronouns.] Dissertation, Moscow State University.
Cited in:
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #721: If a language has a deictic salience of the 2nd person, then it has the category of Inclusive.
- Universal #1743: On the NP analysis pronouns are arguably anomalous in lacking an overt noun head – unless pronouns are taken t
The case for case. In Emmon Bach & Robert T. Harms (eds.), Universals in Linguistic Theory, 1-88. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Nasalization as a universal phonological process. In Charles A. Ferguson, Larry M. Hyman, & John J. Ohala (eds.), Nasálfest, 197-212. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1793: N-deletion occurs first in unstressed/atonic syllables before spreading to stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1797: Nasals are deleted preferentially before consonants word-medially than word-finally (first before consonants a
- Universal #1798: N-deletion is preferred preceding fricatives rather than stops.
- Universal #1802: Preferential Vowel-Lengthening Parameter:Vowel lengthening preferably occurs before the cluster nasal + fricat
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
Foundations of Theoretical Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1770: Nasal effacement applies preferentially to weak nasals, thus to velar nasals in preference to dental or labial
- Universal #1771: Nasal effacement applies to tautosyllabic nasals in preference to heterosyllabic nasals.
- Universal #1772: Nasal effacement applies to unstressed nasals in preference to stressed nasals.
- Universal #1773: Nasal effacement applies to nasals after long vowels in preference to nasals after short vowels.
- Universal #1774: Nasal effacement applies to nasals after inherently strong vowels in preference to nasals after inherently wea
- Universal #1775: If there is effacement of comparatively strong (syllable-initial) nasals, then there must have already been ef
- Universal #1776: Nasalization is more likely to occur before continuants than stops.
- Universal #1777: Nasalization is more likely to occur before consonants than vowels.
- Universal #1778: If denasalization applies to /o/, then it also applies to /e/.
- Universal #1779: See IPA.
- Universal #1780: See IPA.
- Universal #1781: Universal Inequality Condition:(A) e → Ø / _#; (B) o → Ø / _#; (C) a → Ø / _#; 1. If a language
- Universal #1782: If there is assibilation of labials, then there must be assibilation of dentals.If there is assibilation of de
- Universal #1783: If assibilation occurs before a , then it must occur before e.If assibilation occurs before e, then it must oc
- Universal #1784: If there is a voiced affricate reflex, then there will also be a voicless affricate reflex, i.e.dz → z &r
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1797: Nasals are deleted preferentially before consonants word-medially than word-finally (first before consonants a
- Universal #1798: N-deletion is preferred preceding fricatives rather than stops.
- Universal #1802: Preferential Vowel-Lengthening Parameter:Vowel lengthening preferably occurs before the cluster nasal + fricat
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
Toward a universal typology of the noun phrase. Studies in Language 4: 169-199.
The Category of Person in Language. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Word order, case, and agreement. Linguistics 25: 475-499.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #1614: In languages with verb agreement, patient verb agreement appears more frequently in verb-peripheral languages
- Universal #1615: All languages with verb-patient agreement, regardless of type, also have verb agreement with the agent as well
- Universal #1616: In SOV languages, when the expected order of Modifier-Noun does not occur, agreement [between noun and modifie
- Universal #1617: Concord is common among VO languages, particularly when the order of constituents is modifier-Noun and thus in
Parameters and optionality. Linguistic Inquiry 24: 399-420.
The Principles-and-Parameters approach: A comparative syntax of English and Japanese. In Shibatani & Bynon (eds.) 1995, 327-372.
Die Sprachwissenschaft: Ihre Aufgaben, Methoden und bisherigen Ergebnisse. 2nd edition. Leipzig: Tauchnitz.
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. (1975 [1978]). On the correlation of stops and fricatives in a phonological system. Lingua 35: 231-261. Also published in Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 9-46.
The Typology of Reflexives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #1643: It is characteristic for reflexive markers to develop into decausative markers cross-linguistically, and there
- Universal #1644: Evolution of semantic functions of subjective reflexive markers: semantic reflexivity > ‘partitive object’ and
- Universal #1645: The principal functions within the objective recessive diathesis develop in the following succession:decausati
- Universal #1646: Syntactic functions of reflexive markers fall into an implicational hierarchy: transitive > objective > subjec
A prosodic typology of language. Folia Linguistica 20: 165-231.
Definiteness, noun phrase, configurationality, and the count-mass distinction. In Eric J. Reuland & Alice ter Meulen (eds.) 1987, 254-269.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #575: If a language has obligatory marking of (in)definiteness, then it has obligatory marking of nominal plurality
- Universal #576: If a language has obligatory marking of (in)definiteness, then it has no obligatory marking of numeral classif
- Universal #577: If a language has obligatory marking of (in)definiteness, then it has no stacked adnominal numeral constructio
- Universal #582: A language distinguishes between count and mass nouns if and only if a language possesses configurational NPs.
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1596: The restriction of internally headed relative clauses to OV languages implies that these relative clauses are
- Universal #1597: Internally headed relative clauses occur only in languages manifesting null anaphora (that is, the use of null
Scopal quantifiers: Some universals of lexical effability. In Michel Kefer & Johan van der Auwera (eds.) 1992, 303-345.
Cited in:
- Universal #108: In consistent OV languages, interrogative markers follow verbs, occupying final position in the sentence.
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #222: If a language has a distributive-key quantifier word, then that word is a distributive-key universal quantifie
- Universal #623: If a distributive-key quantifier word and its ordinary counterpart are associated, in a certain construction,
- Universal #624: Distributive-key quantifier words are at least as closely bound to their head nouns as their ordinary counterp
- Universal #625: Distributive-key quantifier words and their ordinary counterparts are not morphologically related.
- Universal #626: If a language has distributive-share quantifier words, it has non-configurational NPs, and does not distinguis
- Universal #628: If a language has a distributive-share quantifier word, it has a distributive-share numeral word.
- Universal #630: If a distributive-share quantifier word and its ordinary counterpart are associated, in a certain construction
- Universal #631: Distributive-share quantifier words are formed from their ordinary counterparts by morphological process.
- Universal #632: If a language uses reduplication to form portmanteau from ordinary quantifier words, then it forms distributiv
- Universal #633: If a language uses pluralization to form portmanteau from ordinary quantifier words, then it forms distributiv
- Universal #634: If a language has a scopal quantifier word, then that word is a distributive quantifier word.
- Universal #1154: If a language has a distributive-share word, it has a distributive-share numeral word.
- Universal #1424: If a language has a distributive-key quantifier word, it has a distributive-key universal quantifier.
Universal quantifiers and distributivity. In Emmon Bach, Eloise Jelinek, Angelika Kratzer, & Barbara Partee (eds.), Quantification in Natural Languages. Volume 1, 321-362. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Cited in:
- Universal #31: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has other NP-internal attributive constituents showing agreement in
- Universal #222: If a language has a distributive-key quantifier word, then that word is a distributive-key universal quantifie
- Universal #623: If a distributive-key quantifier word and its ordinary counterpart are associated, in a certain construction,
- Universal #1172: If a language possesses simple and distributive-key universal quantifiers, and the two are morphologically rel
- Universal #1173: If a language possesses a distributive-key universal quantifier, it possesses a simple universal quantifier.
- Universal #1174: If a language possesses simple and distributive-share universal quantifiers, then the distributive-share unive
- Universal #1175: If a language uses a morphosyntactic process P to form a distributive-share universal quantifier, it also uses
- Universal #1176: If a language possesses a distributive-share universal quantifier, it possesses a simple universal quantifier.
- Rara #30: case distinction exclusively by tone
Syntax complexity: Left-branched languages. In Palek (ed.) 1997, 487-495.
Les vrais principles de la langue françoise , ou La parole réduite en méthode, conformément aux lois de l’usage. En seize discours. Paris: Le Breton (2 vols.), Amsterdam: J. Wetstein (1 vol.).
Cited in:
- Universal #230: If constituent order is rigid, then cases are absent, and vice versa; if cases are absent, then the use of pre
- Universal #231: If constituent order is rigid (or if there is no case inflection), then the gradation of adjectives is express
- Universal #232: If constituent order is rigid and there is no case inflection, then there is a definite article, but not vice
Historical syntax and synchronic morphology: An archeologist’s field trip. CLS 7: 394-415.
Promotion, accessibility and case marking: Toward understanding grammars. Working Papers on Language Universals 19: 55-126.
Cited in:
- Universal #76: Only languages in which promotion to subject via passivization results in verb coding the semantic case of the
- Universal #77: Only languages in which (a) the accusative is unmarked, (b) in addition when a non-accusative is dative-shifte
- Universal #78: Only languages in which (a) passivization involves complete loss of the semantic case-coding properties of the
- Universal #79: Only languages in which passivization involves (a) the complete assumption of the coding properties of the sub
- Universal #80: There is no language in which the subject must be first demoted (via passivization) before it can be relativiz
- Universal #81: There is no language in which an accusative object must be first demoted via dative-shift before it can be rel
- Universal #82: There is no language in which an accusative object must first be demoted via dative-shift before it can be pas
- Universal #83: There is no language where the accusative is a marked case and non-accusative objects gain that marking in dat
On the development of the numeral ‘one’ as an indefinite article. Folia Linguistica Historica 2: 35-53.
Direct object and dative shifting: semantic and pragmatic case. In Frans Plank (ed.), Objects: Toward a Theory of Grammatical Relations, 151-182. London, Orlando: Academic Press.
Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction. Volume 2. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Headless relatives in the Southwest: Are they related? Berkley Linguistic Society 3: 270-278.
A typology of contour tone restrictions. Studies in Language 25: 405-444.
Foundations of Language. New York: Macmillan.
Some universals of grammar, with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, 73-113. Greenberg, Joseph H. (1964 [1965, 1978e]). Some generalizations concerning initial and final consonant sequences (Russian) Voprosy jazykoznanija 1964-4, 41-65. Translated in Linguistics 18: 5-34. Also published in Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 243-279.
Cited in:
- Universal #3: In languages with prepositions the genitive almost always follows the governing noun.
- Universal #4: In languages with postpositions the genitive almost always precedes the governing noun.
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #7: Where morphemes of both number and case are present and both follow or both precede the noun base, the express
- Universal #8: If in a language the verb follows the nominal subject and the nominal object as the dominant order, the langua
- Universal #9: If in apposition the proper noun usually precedes the common noun, then the language is one in which the gover
- Universal #10: With much better than chance frequency, if in apposition the common noun usually precedes the proper noun, the
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #58: When the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows, there may be a minority of adjectives which u
- Universal #59: When any or all of these items — demonstrative, numeral, descriptive adjective — precede the noun, they are al
- Universal #60: If some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, then the language is one in which the qualifying adje
- Universal #61: If in comparisons of superiority the only order, or one of the alternative orders, is standard - marker - adje
- Universal #62: If the relative expression precedes the noun either as the only construction or as an alternate construction,
- Universal #63: When the adjective follows the noun, the adjective expresses all the inflectional categories of the noun. In s
- Universal #93: IF a language has pronominal gender in the 2nd person singular, THEN it has a greater probability of having th
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #115: It is common for certain case distinctions to be neutralized for a given number, while the opposite phenomenon
- Universal #116: ... number is, as has been seen, closer to the stem and generally present when case is present, while the oppo
- Universal #397: The more frequent and syntagmatically simple forms show paradigmatically complexity, the less frequent and syn
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #491: With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional.
- Universal #492: All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative order.
- Universal #493: If in a language with dominant SOV order there is no alternative basic order, or only OSV as the alternative,
- Universal #494: When a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding assertion by an intonational pattern, the dist
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #498: Inversion of statement order so that verb precedes subject occurs only in languages where the question word or
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #500: If the nominal object always precedes the verb, then verb forms subordinate to the main verb also precede it.
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #502: In expressions of volition and purpose, a subordinate verbal form always follows the main verb as the normal o
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #504: If the pronominal object follows the verb, so does the nominal object.
- Universal #505: If a language has discontinuous affixes, it always has either prefixing or suffixing or both.
- Universal #506: If a language is exclusively suffixing, it is postpositional; if it is exclusively prefixing, it is prepositio
- Universal #507: If both the derivation and inflection follow the root, or they both precede the root, the derivation is always
- Universal #508: If a language has inflection, it always has derivation.
- Universal #509: If the verb has categories of person-number or if it has categories of gender, it always has tense-mode catego
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #511: Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number.
- Universal #512: When number agreement between the noun and verb is suspended and the rule is based on order, the case is alway
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #514: There is no language in which the plural does not have some non-zero allomorphs, whereas there are languages i
- Universal #515: If a language has the category of gender, it always has the category of number.
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #518: If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #534: It seems probable that in all languages expressions of time and place may appear in the initial positions in t
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #664: There is a correlation between converb prominence and object-verb word order.
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #1187: Basic word orders OSV and OVS do not occur at all, while SVO, SOV, VSO, and VOS are all attested.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
Language universals. In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.) Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 3, 61-112. The Hague: Mouton.
Cited in:
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #948: Of the two vowels i and ü, i may originate from ü but not ü from i.
- Universal #1220: If there are (local) postpositions, then there will also be nominal case inflection (not necessarily including
- Universal #1223: If a case is governed by a local postposition, then this case will preferably also be used to express possessi
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1660: Whenever the same term is used to designate the mother and the father’s sister, this same term is used for the
- Universal #1661: Lineal kinship term is unmarked as against collateral, consanguineal is unmarked as against affinal, the less
- Universal #1662: All systems distinguish male and female parent by separate terms even though very frequently other kin types a
- Universal #1663: Whenever there are two terms differing in generation which are true reciprocals, or there is one which is a se
- Universal #1664: Distinction of sex in the second descending generation implies the same distinction in the second ascending ge
Synchronic and diachronic universals in phonology. Language 42: 508-517.
Cited in:
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #948: Of the two vowels i and ü, i may originate from ü but not ü from i.
- Universal #1220: If there are (local) postpositions, then there will also be nominal case inflection (not necessarily including
- Universal #1223: If a case is governed by a local postposition, then this case will preferably also be used to express possessi
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1660: Whenever the same term is used to designate the mother and the father’s sister, this same term is used for the
- Universal #1661: Lineal kinship term is unmarked as against collateral, consanguineal is unmarked as against affinal, the less
- Universal #1662: All systems distinguish male and female parent by separate terms even though very frequently other kin types a
- Universal #1663: Whenever there are two terms differing in generation which are true reciprocals, or there is one which is a se
- Universal #1664: Distinction of sex in the second descending generation implies the same distinction in the second ascending ge
Universals of kinship terminology. In Joseph Greenberg, Language Universals, With Special Reference to Feature Hierarchies, 72-87. The Hague: Mouton.
Cited in:
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #948: Of the two vowels i and ü, i may originate from ü but not ü from i.
- Universal #1220: If there are (local) postpositions, then there will also be nominal case inflection (not necessarily including
- Universal #1223: If a case is governed by a local postposition, then this case will preferably also be used to express possessi
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1660: Whenever the same term is used to designate the mother and the father’s sister, this same term is used for the
- Universal #1661: Lineal kinship term is unmarked as against collateral, consanguineal is unmarked as against affinal, the less
- Universal #1662: All systems distinguish male and female parent by separate terms even though very frequently other kin types a
- Universal #1663: Whenever there are two terms differing in generation which are true reciprocals, or there is one which is a se
- Universal #1664: Distinction of sex in the second descending generation implies the same distinction in the second ascending ge
Some generalizations concerning glottalic consonants, especially implosives. International Journal of American Linguistics 36: 123-145.
Cited in:
- Universal #535: If a language includes numeral classifiers as its dominant mode of forming quantification expressions, then it
- Universal #755: IF a language has glottalic obstruents and sonants, THEN the ejective obstruent is unvoiced.
- Universal #757: For injectives, ..., the bilabial is clearly the favoured point of articulation.
- Universal #758: Preferences regarding point of articulation for glottalic obstruents are as follows: injectives tend to have f
- Universal #759: I know of no language with more than four injective obstruents.
- Universal #760: ... the generalization that the presence of at least one posterior (compact) injective implies the presence of
- Universal #761: A recurrent feature of injectives which deserves special mention and treatment is that the injective correspon
- Universal #762:
- Universal #763: ... palatal noninjective stops have a strong tendency to be replaced by alveopalatal affricates.
- Universal #764: Syllabic initial position is favoured for glottalic consonants in general.
- Universal #765: Injectives tend not to cluster with plain consonants.
- Universal #766: A voiced injective stop ... has an effect identical with or more similar to that of ordinary breathy or voiced
- Universal #767: ... unvoiced ejectives never exist without plain stops.
- Universal #768: When ... the injective in the dental or alveolar position has become retracted and/or retroflexed, there is a
- Universal #1339: If we have an OSV basic order, then we also have SOV as an alternative order.If we have an OVS basic order, th
- Universal #1677:
Numeral classifiers and substantival number: Problems in the genesis of a linguistic type. Working Papers on Language Universals 9: 1-40.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #256: If there exists a regular gender (nominal class) distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily pr
- Universal #493: If in a language with dominant SOV order there is no alternative basic order, or only OSV as the alternative,
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #535: If a language includes numeral classifiers as its dominant mode of forming quantification expressions, then it
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1370: There is a universal principle that in numeral classifier languages classifier concatenates with a quantifier,
- Universal #1371: If grammatical number (singular, dual, paucal, plural) is marked at all on classifier constructions, it is usu
- Universal #1375: In classifier languages without inflectional plurals neither counters nor measures ever take plural markers an
- Universal #1404: If a language has S (O) V ordering but no SOV orderings, then it will have S (O) ADV V orderings, but no S (O)
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
The relation of frequency to semantic feature in a case language (Russian). Working Papers on Language Universals 16: 21-46.
Cited in:
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1036: Morphemically simple phonological words never have more than one main stress.
- Universal #1627: There is some evidence that in numeral classifier languages when concrete objects are counted the numerals alw
- Universal #1628: In languages with double numeral systems, there is a correlative tendency of the A form to be syntactically de
- Universal #1630: In languages with double numeral systems, the set of numerals labelled as A tends to be associated with singul
Studies in numerical systems, I: Double numeral systems. Working Papers on Language Universals 14: 75-89.
Cited in:
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1036: Morphemically simple phonological words never have more than one main stress.
- Universal #1627: There is some evidence that in numeral classifier languages when concrete objects are counted the numerals alw
- Universal #1628: In languages with double numeral systems, there is a correlative tendency of the A form to be syntactically de
- Universal #1630: In languages with double numeral systems, the set of numerals labelled as A tends to be associated with singul
Generalizations about numeral systems. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 250-295.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #215: If a language has a noun-genitive order in the possessive construction, it has quantitative-noun order in the
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #527: Every language has a numeral system of finite scope.
- Universal #528: Every number n (0<n<L) can be expressed as part of the numeral system in any language.
- Universal #529: Zero is never expressed as part of the numeral system.
- Universal #530: In every numerical system some numbers receive simple lexical representation.
- Universal #531: No number is ever expressed in any numeral system by means of a function any of whose arguments is ≥ L.
- Universal #532: The largest value of L in numeral systems with only simple lexical representation is 5 and the smallest is 2.
- Universal #533: The smallest value for L in numeral systems with arithmetical operations is 4.
- Universal #536: When a number is expressed by subtraction, or when a subtraction occurs as a constituent of a complex expressi
- Universal #537: If a number is expressed by subtraction as y - x, then every number z (z > y > n) is also expressed subtractiv
- Universal #538: If in a language, in any sum the smaller addend precedes the larger, then the same order holds for all smaller
- Universal #539: If in a language, in any sum the larger addend precedes the smaller, then the same order holds for all larger
- Universal #540: If there are numerals in which the expression of the multiplier follows that of the multiplicand, the language
- Universal #541: A link for addition is never initial in a numeral.
- Universal #542: In numeral systems with simple lexical representation, there is the following correlation: These simplest syst
- Universal #543: If a link for addition occurs medially, it always goes with the following numeral in a prepositional language
- Universal #544: When there is a word order variation in addition between larger and smaller, and one order has an overt link a
- Universal #545: If a link for subtraction is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #546: If a numeral expression contains a complex constituent, then the numerical value of the complex constituent it
- Universal #547: The degree of morphological fusion varies inversely with the size of the numerical value.
- Universal #548: In languages in which the expression of plurality is facultative in the noun, the singular may be used with nu
- Universal #549: In languages with singular/dual/plural systems in the noun, if the plural is used in any instances where a set
- Universal #550: If numeral expressions for the smallest addends take the plural of the noun when they designate numbers >1, th
- Universal #551: Where there is rule-governed variation between the use of the singular and plural with numerals, the use of th
- Universal #552: The order noun-numeral is favoured in indefinite and approximative constructions.
- Universal #553: If a link for addition is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #554: If there is variation in Noun Quantifier order depending on the identity of the numeral, one of the two orders
- Universal #555: If a language has both partitive and adjectival Quantifier Noun constructions, the smallest number which emplo
- Universal #556: The construction with the interrogative “how many?” is usually the same as that with the highest block of nume
- Universal #557: Absolute forms of cardinal numbers may have overt markers added to the contextual forms, but not vice versa.
- Universal #558: Where there are contrasting forms for the absolute and contextual uses of cardinal numbers, there is always ne
- Universal #560: The existence of a separate absolute form for a particular numerical value implies its existence for the next
- Universal #561: Where the distinction between absolute and contextual cardinal numerals exists, the use of contextual form as
- Universal #562: If an atomic numeral expression is borrowed from one language into another, all higher atomic expressions are
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #704: In most languages the base number is put before the unit, and in general a higher number before a lower, when
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #816: In regard to sibilants there is a strong tendency for different types of sibilants not to combine. If it occur
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #843: Every initial of final sequence of length m contains at least one continuous subsequence of length m - 1.
- Universal #844: In all initial and final clusters, if there are sequences of length m and n and m >n, then the proportion of c
- Universal #845: There are no initial or final clusters in which all obstruent combinations are heterogeneous in regard to voic
- Universal #846: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal (voiced or unvoiced) followed
- Universal #847: A similar statement (cf. ) for initial clusters holds in almost all cases (that is, the existence of at least
- Universal #848: In initial clusters, the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least
- Universal #849: Languages with stop + stop almost always have both stop + fricative and fricative + stop combinations.
- Universal #850: In final clusters the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least one
- Universal #851: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of a liquid + nasal implies the existenc
- Universal #852: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of a
- Universal #853: In final clusters, the existence of at least one liquid + nasal cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #854: In final clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of at
- Universal #855: In final clusters, the existence of at least one nasal + liquid cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #856: An unvoiced stop in initial clusters is never preceded immediately by a stop differing only by voicing, and in
- Universal #857: In final clusterss a voiced stop is only followed immediately by a stop differing only in being unvoiced if th
- Universal #858: No succession of consonants only differing in that one is unvoiced and the other is glottalized occurs in init
- Universal #859: No combination of a voiced and glottalized consonant is found in either initial or final clusters.
- Universal #860: In initial and final clusters a lateral is never followed immediately by an r-type sound. In the initial syste
- Universal #861: In final systems, clusters with two members never consist of a hushing followed by a hissing sibilant.
- Universal #862: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence containing a liquid, whether voiced or unvoiced, im
- Universal #863: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence containing a stop immediately followed by an liquid
- Universal #864: Voiced semivowels are not followed by obstruents in initial clusters or preceded by obstruents in final cluste
- Universal #865: Except for voiced nasal followed by homorganic unvoiced obstruent, an unvoiced consonant or sequence of unvoic
- Universal #866: In initial clusters the presence of at least one sequence of voiced nasal + unvoiced homorganic obstruent impl
- Universal #867: In final clusters, except for unvoiced obstruents followed by a voiced nasal, an unvoiced consonant or sequenc
- Universal #868: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a voiced liquid followed by a nasal i
- Universal #869: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal followed by a liquid, a nasal
- Universal #870: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the ex
- Universal #871: In final clusters, the existing of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the exist
- Universal #872: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + nasal implies the
- Universal #873: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + semivowel implies
- Universal #874: In final clusters, the existence of at least one combination of sonant + voiced obstruent implies the existenc
- Universal #875: In initial and final clusters, an unvoiced sonant is never immediately preceded or followed by another unvoice
- Universal #876: If a language has at least one cluster containing n glottalized consonants, it has at least one cluster with n
- Universal #877: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + liquid implies the existence
- Universal #878: In final clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + nasal implies the existence of
- Universal #879: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of obstruent + nasal implies the existen
- Universal #880: Every language with final clusters contains at least one cluster with a final obstruent in the dental-alveolar
- Universal #881: Every language with initial clusters contains at least one cluster with an initial consonant in the dental-alv
- Universal #882: A language which has any affricates includes among them at least one in the dental-alveolar or alveo-palatal r
- Universal #1252: The existence of multiplication implies the existence of addition.
- Universal #1289: Subtraction is never expressed by mere sequence of the subtrahend and minuend.
- Universal #1292: Of the four fundamental arithmetical operations --addition and its inverse, subtraction, and multiplication an
- Universal #1316: Every minuend is a base of the system or a multiple of the base.
- Universal #1352: A subtrahend is always a simple lexical expression.
- Universal #1354: Division is always expressed as multiplication by a fraction. Only units or multiples of units are dividends,
- Universal #1355: Every superessive or possessive augend is a serialized augend.
- Universal #1356: A serialized augend is always larger than its addends.
- Universal #1357: Whenever there are three or more summands and at least one is a product, parenthesization starts by separating
- Universal #1358: The maximum number of sporadic addends is two.
- Universal #1359: All adverbially or partitively expressed multiplicands are serialized multiplicands.
- Universal #1360: All the bases of systems are divisible by the fundamental base.
- Universal #1361: A multiplicand in a pseudo-base is always smaller than its multiplier.
- Universal #1362: If a serialized multiplicand is a factor in some product in which the multiplier is larger than the multiplica
- Universal #1363: The maximum number of sporadic factors is two.
- Universal #1364: Only a base is ever multiplied by 1.
- Universal #1365: If the multiplier follows the multiplicand in a particular numeral, it follows in all higher numerals which ar
- Universal #1366: If 1 is expressed as a multiplier with a particular base, it is expressed with all higher bases.
- Universal #1367: The only numeral expressions deleted are those for 1 and for bases of the system.
- Universal #1368: In systems with more than one base, there is a base, the base for predictable explanation, above which in all
- Universal #1369: All numeral series have the same mathematical structure.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1404: If a language has S (O) V ordering but no SOV orderings, then it will have S (O) ADV V orderings, but no S (O)
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1517: SVO is a grammatical (although marked) word order in all VOS languages.
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1785: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has stop + fricative onset clusters.
- Universal #1786: If a language has stop + fricative onset clusters, then it has stop + stop onset clusters.
- Universal #1787: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has fricative + fricative onset clusters.
- Rara #125: when tone is privative, low tone as marked (hence phonologically active) relative to (phonologically inactive)
- Rara #128: as many as five phonological tone levels, plus two falling and one rising contour tone
How does a language acquire gender markers? In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 47-82.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #215: If a language has a noun-genitive order in the possessive construction, it has quantitative-noun order in the
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #527: Every language has a numeral system of finite scope.
- Universal #528: Every number n (0<n<L) can be expressed as part of the numeral system in any language.
- Universal #529: Zero is never expressed as part of the numeral system.
- Universal #530: In every numerical system some numbers receive simple lexical representation.
- Universal #531: No number is ever expressed in any numeral system by means of a function any of whose arguments is ≥ L.
- Universal #532: The largest value of L in numeral systems with only simple lexical representation is 5 and the smallest is 2.
- Universal #533: The smallest value for L in numeral systems with arithmetical operations is 4.
- Universal #536: When a number is expressed by subtraction, or when a subtraction occurs as a constituent of a complex expressi
- Universal #537: If a number is expressed by subtraction as y - x, then every number z (z > y > n) is also expressed subtractiv
- Universal #538: If in a language, in any sum the smaller addend precedes the larger, then the same order holds for all smaller
- Universal #539: If in a language, in any sum the larger addend precedes the smaller, then the same order holds for all larger
- Universal #540: If there are numerals in which the expression of the multiplier follows that of the multiplicand, the language
- Universal #541: A link for addition is never initial in a numeral.
- Universal #542: In numeral systems with simple lexical representation, there is the following correlation: These simplest syst
- Universal #543: If a link for addition occurs medially, it always goes with the following numeral in a prepositional language
- Universal #544: When there is a word order variation in addition between larger and smaller, and one order has an overt link a
- Universal #545: If a link for subtraction is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #546: If a numeral expression contains a complex constituent, then the numerical value of the complex constituent it
- Universal #547: The degree of morphological fusion varies inversely with the size of the numerical value.
- Universal #548: In languages in which the expression of plurality is facultative in the noun, the singular may be used with nu
- Universal #549: In languages with singular/dual/plural systems in the noun, if the plural is used in any instances where a set
- Universal #550: If numeral expressions for the smallest addends take the plural of the noun when they designate numbers >1, th
- Universal #551: Where there is rule-governed variation between the use of the singular and plural with numerals, the use of th
- Universal #552: The order noun-numeral is favoured in indefinite and approximative constructions.
- Universal #553: If a link for addition is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #554: If there is variation in Noun Quantifier order depending on the identity of the numeral, one of the two orders
- Universal #555: If a language has both partitive and adjectival Quantifier Noun constructions, the smallest number which emplo
- Universal #556: The construction with the interrogative “how many?” is usually the same as that with the highest block of nume
- Universal #557: Absolute forms of cardinal numbers may have overt markers added to the contextual forms, but not vice versa.
- Universal #558: Where there are contrasting forms for the absolute and contextual uses of cardinal numbers, there is always ne
- Universal #560: The existence of a separate absolute form for a particular numerical value implies its existence for the next
- Universal #561: Where the distinction between absolute and contextual cardinal numerals exists, the use of contextual form as
- Universal #562: If an atomic numeral expression is borrowed from one language into another, all higher atomic expressions are
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #704: In most languages the base number is put before the unit, and in general a higher number before a lower, when
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #816: In regard to sibilants there is a strong tendency for different types of sibilants not to combine. If it occur
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #843: Every initial of final sequence of length m contains at least one continuous subsequence of length m - 1.
- Universal #844: In all initial and final clusters, if there are sequences of length m and n and m >n, then the proportion of c
- Universal #845: There are no initial or final clusters in which all obstruent combinations are heterogeneous in regard to voic
- Universal #846: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal (voiced or unvoiced) followed
- Universal #847: A similar statement (cf. ) for initial clusters holds in almost all cases (that is, the existence of at least
- Universal #848: In initial clusters, the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least
- Universal #849: Languages with stop + stop almost always have both stop + fricative and fricative + stop combinations.
- Universal #850: In final clusters the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least one
- Universal #851: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of a liquid + nasal implies the existenc
- Universal #852: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of a
- Universal #853: In final clusters, the existence of at least one liquid + nasal cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #854: In final clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of at
- Universal #855: In final clusters, the existence of at least one nasal + liquid cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #856: An unvoiced stop in initial clusters is never preceded immediately by a stop differing only by voicing, and in
- Universal #857: In final clusterss a voiced stop is only followed immediately by a stop differing only in being unvoiced if th
- Universal #858: No succession of consonants only differing in that one is unvoiced and the other is glottalized occurs in init
- Universal #859: No combination of a voiced and glottalized consonant is found in either initial or final clusters.
- Universal #860: In initial and final clusters a lateral is never followed immediately by an r-type sound. In the initial syste
- Universal #861: In final systems, clusters with two members never consist of a hushing followed by a hissing sibilant.
- Universal #862: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence containing a liquid, whether voiced or unvoiced, im
- Universal #863: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence containing a stop immediately followed by an liquid
- Universal #864: Voiced semivowels are not followed by obstruents in initial clusters or preceded by obstruents in final cluste
- Universal #865: Except for voiced nasal followed by homorganic unvoiced obstruent, an unvoiced consonant or sequence of unvoic
- Universal #866: In initial clusters the presence of at least one sequence of voiced nasal + unvoiced homorganic obstruent impl
- Universal #867: In final clusters, except for unvoiced obstruents followed by a voiced nasal, an unvoiced consonant or sequenc
- Universal #868: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a voiced liquid followed by a nasal i
- Universal #869: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal followed by a liquid, a nasal
- Universal #870: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the ex
- Universal #871: In final clusters, the existing of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the exist
- Universal #872: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + nasal implies the
- Universal #873: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + semivowel implies
- Universal #874: In final clusters, the existence of at least one combination of sonant + voiced obstruent implies the existenc
- Universal #875: In initial and final clusters, an unvoiced sonant is never immediately preceded or followed by another unvoice
- Universal #876: If a language has at least one cluster containing n glottalized consonants, it has at least one cluster with n
- Universal #877: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + liquid implies the existence
- Universal #878: In final clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + nasal implies the existence of
- Universal #879: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of obstruent + nasal implies the existen
- Universal #880: Every language with final clusters contains at least one cluster with a final obstruent in the dental-alveolar
- Universal #881: Every language with initial clusters contains at least one cluster with an initial consonant in the dental-alv
- Universal #882: A language which has any affricates includes among them at least one in the dental-alveolar or alveo-palatal r
- Universal #1252: The existence of multiplication implies the existence of addition.
- Universal #1289: Subtraction is never expressed by mere sequence of the subtrahend and minuend.
- Universal #1292: Of the four fundamental arithmetical operations --addition and its inverse, subtraction, and multiplication an
- Universal #1316: Every minuend is a base of the system or a multiple of the base.
- Universal #1352: A subtrahend is always a simple lexical expression.
- Universal #1354: Division is always expressed as multiplication by a fraction. Only units or multiples of units are dividends,
- Universal #1355: Every superessive or possessive augend is a serialized augend.
- Universal #1356: A serialized augend is always larger than its addends.
- Universal #1357: Whenever there are three or more summands and at least one is a product, parenthesization starts by separating
- Universal #1358: The maximum number of sporadic addends is two.
- Universal #1359: All adverbially or partitively expressed multiplicands are serialized multiplicands.
- Universal #1360: All the bases of systems are divisible by the fundamental base.
- Universal #1361: A multiplicand in a pseudo-base is always smaller than its multiplier.
- Universal #1362: If a serialized multiplicand is a factor in some product in which the multiplier is larger than the multiplica
- Universal #1363: The maximum number of sporadic factors is two.
- Universal #1364: Only a base is ever multiplied by 1.
- Universal #1365: If the multiplier follows the multiplicand in a particular numeral, it follows in all higher numerals which ar
- Universal #1366: If 1 is expressed as a multiplier with a particular base, it is expressed with all higher bases.
- Universal #1367: The only numeral expressions deleted are those for 1 and for bases of the system.
- Universal #1368: In systems with more than one base, there is a base, the base for predictable explanation, above which in all
- Universal #1369: All numeral series have the same mathematical structure.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1404: If a language has S (O) V ordering but no SOV orderings, then it will have S (O) ADV V orderings, but no S (O)
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1517: SVO is a grammatical (although marked) word order in all VOS languages.
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1785: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has stop + fricative onset clusters.
- Universal #1786: If a language has stop + fricative onset clusters, then it has stop + stop onset clusters.
- Universal #1787: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has fricative + fricative onset clusters.
- Rara #125: when tone is privative, low tone as marked (hence phonologically active) relative to (phonologically inactive)
- Rara #128: as many as five phonological tone levels, plus two falling and one rising contour tone
Universals of kinship terminology. In Jacques Maquet (ed.), On Linguistic Anthropology: Essays in Honor of Harry Hojer, 9-32. Malibu: Undena.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #758: Preferences regarding point of articulation for glottalic obstruents are as follows: injectives tend to have f
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #816: In regard to sibilants there is a strong tendency for different types of sibilants not to combine. If it occur
- Universal #845: There are no initial or final clusters in which all obstruent combinations are heterogeneous in regard to voic
- Universal #861: In final systems, clusters with two members never consist of a hushing followed by a hissing sibilant.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #1443: Every one of the seven metapersons, i.e. 'speaker', 'hearer', 'non-participant', 'speaker + hearer(s)', 'speak
- Universal #1453: In no language is there a special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular.
- Universal #1464: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s)', it must also denote the metaperso
- Universal #1487: If in a language there is a pronominal form denoting the dual of the metapersons 'hearer', 'hearer + non-parti
- Universal #1660: Whenever the same term is used to designate the mother and the father’s sister, this same term is used for the
- Universal #1661: Lineal kinship term is unmarked as against collateral, consanguineal is unmarked as against affinal, the less
Some iconic relations among place, time, and discourse deixis. In Haiman (ed.) 1985, 271-287.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #514: There is no language in which the plural does not have some non-zero allomorphs, whereas there are languages i
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #694: In initial sounds: the heterorganic sequence of an obstruent consonant and a nasal consonant (e.g. bn) implies
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #965: ... definite articles are often synchronically identical with or clearly related to demonstratives which are a
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1948: One generally unremarked fact is that 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a pluralit
The first person inclusive dual as an ambiguous category. Studies in Language 12: 1-18.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #1136: If only one person differentiates a dual, it will very likely be the 1st rather than the 2nd or 3rd.
- Universal #1409: The existence of a 2nd person dual pronoun seems to always imply that of a 1st person dual, whether with or wi
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1785: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has stop + fricative onset clusters.
- Universal #1876: It holds as a strong statistical implication that whenever there is a 1st person exclusive dual there is also
- Universal #1877: There are instances in which a 1st person inclusive plural shows by its morphological structure that it consis
The second person is rightly so called. In Mushira Eid & Gregory Iverson (eds.), Principles and Predication: The Analysis of Natural Language. 9-23. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #1409: The existence of a 2nd person dual pronoun seems to always imply that of a 1st person dual, whether with or wi
- Universal #1944: I know of no language which has one verb stem to indicate giving to the 1st or 3rd person and a suppletive ste
- Universal #1948: One generally unremarked fact is that 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a pluralit
- Universal #1949: It appears to be only indicators of the 1st and 2nd person which combine to form new pronouns. (but see Commen
- Universal #1950: When three-degree systems of demonstratives where proximal/medial/distal correspond to 1st/2nd/3rd person deve
- Universal #1951: In deixis, person and related spatial, 1st and 3rd person never align as against 2nd. 2nd person may align wit
- Universal #1952: Plural markers tend to originate on personal nouns and to spread in both directions, to inanimate nouns, on th
Memorandum concerning language universals. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, xv-xxvii.
Cited in:
- Universal #3: In languages with prepositions the genitive almost always follows the governing noun.
- Universal #4: In languages with postpositions the genitive almost always precedes the governing noun.
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #7: Where morphemes of both number and case are present and both follow or both precede the noun base, the express
- Universal #8: If in a language the verb follows the nominal subject and the nominal object as the dominant order, the langua
- Universal #9: If in apposition the proper noun usually precedes the common noun, then the language is one in which the gover
- Universal #10: With much better than chance frequency, if in apposition the common noun usually precedes the proper noun, the
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #58: When the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows, there may be a minority of adjectives which u
- Universal #59: When any or all of these items — demonstrative, numeral, descriptive adjective — precede the noun, they are al
- Universal #60: If some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, then the language is one in which the qualifying adje
- Universal #61: If in comparisons of superiority the only order, or one of the alternative orders, is standard - marker - adje
- Universal #62: If the relative expression precedes the noun either as the only construction or as an alternate construction,
- Universal #63: When the adjective follows the noun, the adjective expresses all the inflectional categories of the noun. In s
- Universal #93: IF a language has pronominal gender in the 2nd person singular, THEN it has a greater probability of having th
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #115: It is common for certain case distinctions to be neutralized for a given number, while the opposite phenomenon
- Universal #116: ... number is, as has been seen, closer to the stem and generally present when case is present, while the oppo
- Universal #397: The more frequent and syntagmatically simple forms show paradigmatically complexity, the less frequent and syn
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #491: With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional.
- Universal #492: All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative order.
- Universal #493: If in a language with dominant SOV order there is no alternative basic order, or only OSV as the alternative,
- Universal #494: When a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding assertion by an intonational pattern, the dist
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #498: Inversion of statement order so that verb precedes subject occurs only in languages where the question word or
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #500: If the nominal object always precedes the verb, then verb forms subordinate to the main verb also precede it.
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #502: In expressions of volition and purpose, a subordinate verbal form always follows the main verb as the normal o
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #504: If the pronominal object follows the verb, so does the nominal object.
- Universal #505: If a language has discontinuous affixes, it always has either prefixing or suffixing or both.
- Universal #506: If a language is exclusively suffixing, it is postpositional; if it is exclusively prefixing, it is prepositio
- Universal #507: If both the derivation and inflection follow the root, or they both precede the root, the derivation is always
- Universal #508: If a language has inflection, it always has derivation.
- Universal #509: If the verb has categories of person-number or if it has categories of gender, it always has tense-mode catego
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #511: Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number.
- Universal #512: When number agreement between the noun and verb is suspended and the rule is based on order, the case is alway
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #514: There is no language in which the plural does not have some non-zero allomorphs, whereas there are languages i
- Universal #515: If a language has the category of gender, it always has the category of number.
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #518: If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #534: It seems probable that in all languages expressions of time and place may appear in the initial positions in t
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #664: There is a correlation between converb prominence and object-verb word order.
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #1187: Basic word orders OSV and OVS do not occur at all, while SVO, SOV, VSO, and VOS are all attested.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
Prosodic word systems: A preliminary report. Working Papers on Language Universals 20: 1-18.
Cited in:
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #540: If there are numerals in which the expression of the multiplier follows that of the multiplicand, the language
- Universal #664: There is a correlation between converb prominence and object-verb word order.
- Universal #704: In most languages the base number is put before the unit, and in general a higher number before a lower, when
- Universal #1033: It is these three features – stress, tone and length (with the possible addition of ... glottalization) – whic
- Universal #1034: Only the intense pole – loud stress, high pitch and length – ever has the accentual property. There is no lang
- Universal #1035: The climactic poles of the three accentual features tend to correlate with each other. Thus, e.g., where stres
- Universal #1036: Morphemically simple phonological words never have more than one main stress.
- Universal #1037: When stress is phonologically predictable and automatic (i.e., always on the same syllable), it may only fall
- Universal #1038: Morphemically simple words must have one main stress.
- Universal #1039: When stress is phonologically predictable and limited to certain syllables (i.e., does not always fall on the
- Universal #1040: When stress is phonologically predictable and unlimited, the relevant syllables may only be identified in term
- Universal #1041: When stress is not phonologically predictable (i.e., when it is phonemic, fulfilling grammatical or lexical fu
- Universal #1042: When secondary stress is phonological, it most frequently involves alternations of weak stress (unstressed?) w
- Universal #1043: Root accent is systematically favoured over inflectional accent.
- Universal #1044: Concerning the relation of word prosody to phrase prosody: Word accent of the final syllable is lost unless ph
- Universal #1045: If stress is phonologically predictable and automatic (i.e., always on the same syllable), then there are phon
- Universal #1046: When length distinctions are limited to certain positions in the word, these always include or are even confin
- Universal #1047: When there are limitations regarding the number of long vowels in a word, they invariably involve end and/or i
- Universal #1048: Whenever syllable closure is counted as an extra mora, vowel length is always present and likewise counts as t
- Universal #1049: When tonal contrasts are neutralized in certain syllables, stress seems invariably to be involved, with tone n
- Universal #1050: The number of tones on a long vowel seems never to be fewer than on a short vowel.
- Universal #1051: If there is tonal ascent, then there is also tonal descent.
- Universal #1052: If word order is SOV, then there are no preclitics.If word order is VSO, then there are no postclitic question
- Universal #1220: If there are (local) postpositions, then there will also be nominal case inflection (not necessarily including
- Universal #1223: If a case is governed by a local postposition, then this case will preferably also be used to express possessi
Universals of Language. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #3: In languages with prepositions the genitive almost always follows the governing noun.
- Universal #4: In languages with postpositions the genitive almost always precedes the governing noun.
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #7: Where morphemes of both number and case are present and both follow or both precede the noun base, the express
- Universal #8: If in a language the verb follows the nominal subject and the nominal object as the dominant order, the langua
- Universal #9: If in apposition the proper noun usually precedes the common noun, then the language is one in which the gover
- Universal #10: With much better than chance frequency, if in apposition the common noun usually precedes the proper noun, the
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #58: When the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows, there may be a minority of adjectives which u
- Universal #59: When any or all of these items — demonstrative, numeral, descriptive adjective — precede the noun, they are al
- Universal #60: If some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, then the language is one in which the qualifying adje
- Universal #61: If in comparisons of superiority the only order, or one of the alternative orders, is standard - marker - adje
- Universal #62: If the relative expression precedes the noun either as the only construction or as an alternate construction,
- Universal #63: When the adjective follows the noun, the adjective expresses all the inflectional categories of the noun. In s
- Universal #93: IF a language has pronominal gender in the 2nd person singular, THEN it has a greater probability of having th
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #115: It is common for certain case distinctions to be neutralized for a given number, while the opposite phenomenon
- Universal #116: ... number is, as has been seen, closer to the stem and generally present when case is present, while the oppo
- Universal #397: The more frequent and syntagmatically simple forms show paradigmatically complexity, the less frequent and syn
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #491: With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional.
- Universal #492: All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative order.
- Universal #493: If in a language with dominant SOV order there is no alternative basic order, or only OSV as the alternative,
- Universal #494: When a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding assertion by an intonational pattern, the dist
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #498: Inversion of statement order so that verb precedes subject occurs only in languages where the question word or
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #500: If the nominal object always precedes the verb, then verb forms subordinate to the main verb also precede it.
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #502: In expressions of volition and purpose, a subordinate verbal form always follows the main verb as the normal o
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #504: If the pronominal object follows the verb, so does the nominal object.
- Universal #505: If a language has discontinuous affixes, it always has either prefixing or suffixing or both.
- Universal #506: If a language is exclusively suffixing, it is postpositional; if it is exclusively prefixing, it is prepositio
- Universal #507: If both the derivation and inflection follow the root, or they both precede the root, the derivation is always
- Universal #508: If a language has inflection, it always has derivation.
- Universal #509: If the verb has categories of person-number or if it has categories of gender, it always has tense-mode catego
- Universal #510: If the verb agrees either with the subject or object noun in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the
- Universal #511: Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number.
- Universal #512: When number agreement between the noun and verb is suspended and the rule is based on order, the case is alway
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #514: There is no language in which the plural does not have some non-zero allomorphs, whereas there are languages i
- Universal #515: If a language has the category of gender, it always has the category of number.
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #518: If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #534: It seems probable that in all languages expressions of time and place may appear in the initial positions in t
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #664: There is a correlation between converb prominence and object-verb word order.
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #945: Nasalized vowels always arise from a sequence of vowel and nasal consonant origin.
- Universal #946: A merger of oral vowels always presupposes the merger of the corresponding nasal vowels if they exist.
- Universal #947: If nasal and oral vowels merge unconditionally, the phonetic result is always an oral vowel.
- Universal #1187: Basic word orders OSV and OVS do not occur at all, while SVO, SOV, VSO, and VOS are all attested.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1984: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Conjunctive verb form. There is a frequently-used, non-final verb form, a "conj
- Universal #1985: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Compound verbs. In addition to simple verbs there are compound verbs including
- Universal #1986: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Sequences of events of the 'go, do, and return' type appear as 'having done, re
- Universal #1987: rigid type III (verb-final) ...Optional plural. Expression of plural in the noun is optional and is normally a
Universals of Human Language. 4 volumes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #152: The syntactic behaviour of simple cardinal numerals will always fall between that of adjectives and nouns.If t
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #215: If a language has a noun-genitive order in the possessive construction, it has quantitative-noun order in the
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #501: In conditional statements, the conditional clause precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #527: Every language has a numeral system of finite scope.
- Universal #528: Every number n (0<n<L) can be expressed as part of the numeral system in any language.
- Universal #529: Zero is never expressed as part of the numeral system.
- Universal #530: In every numerical system some numbers receive simple lexical representation.
- Universal #531: No number is ever expressed in any numeral system by means of a function any of whose arguments is ≥ L.
- Universal #532: The largest value of L in numeral systems with only simple lexical representation is 5 and the smallest is 2.
- Universal #533: The smallest value for L in numeral systems with arithmetical operations is 4.
- Universal #536: When a number is expressed by subtraction, or when a subtraction occurs as a constituent of a complex expressi
- Universal #537: If a number is expressed by subtraction as y - x, then every number z (z > y > n) is also expressed subtractiv
- Universal #538: If in a language, in any sum the smaller addend precedes the larger, then the same order holds for all smaller
- Universal #539: If in a language, in any sum the larger addend precedes the smaller, then the same order holds for all larger
- Universal #540: If there are numerals in which the expression of the multiplier follows that of the multiplicand, the language
- Universal #541: A link for addition is never initial in a numeral.
- Universal #542: In numeral systems with simple lexical representation, there is the following correlation: These simplest syst
- Universal #543: If a link for addition occurs medially, it always goes with the following numeral in a prepositional language
- Universal #544: When there is a word order variation in addition between larger and smaller, and one order has an overt link a
- Universal #545: If a link for subtraction is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #546: If a numeral expression contains a complex constituent, then the numerical value of the complex constituent it
- Universal #547: The degree of morphological fusion varies inversely with the size of the numerical value.
- Universal #548: In languages in which the expression of plurality is facultative in the noun, the singular may be used with nu
- Universal #549: In languages with singular/dual/plural systems in the noun, if the plural is used in any instances where a set
- Universal #550: If numeral expressions for the smallest addends take the plural of the noun when they designate numbers >1, th
- Universal #551: Where there is rule-governed variation between the use of the singular and plural with numerals, the use of th
- Universal #552: The order noun-numeral is favoured in indefinite and approximative constructions.
- Universal #553: If a link for addition is final, the language is postpositional.
- Universal #554: If there is variation in Noun Quantifier order depending on the identity of the numeral, one of the two orders
- Universal #555: If a language has both partitive and adjectival Quantifier Noun constructions, the smallest number which emplo
- Universal #556: The construction with the interrogative “how many?” is usually the same as that with the highest block of nume
- Universal #557: Absolute forms of cardinal numbers may have overt markers added to the contextual forms, but not vice versa.
- Universal #558: Where there are contrasting forms for the absolute and contextual uses of cardinal numbers, there is always ne
- Universal #560: The existence of a separate absolute form for a particular numerical value implies its existence for the next
- Universal #561: Where the distinction between absolute and contextual cardinal numerals exists, the use of contextual form as
- Universal #562: If an atomic numeral expression is borrowed from one language into another, all higher atomic expressions are
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #704: In most languages the base number is put before the unit, and in general a higher number before a lower, when
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #816: In regard to sibilants there is a strong tendency for different types of sibilants not to combine. If it occur
- Universal #822: Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in consonants: unaspirated ⇒ aspirated ⇒ glottalized.
- Universal #843: Every initial of final sequence of length m contains at least one continuous subsequence of length m - 1.
- Universal #844: In all initial and final clusters, if there are sequences of length m and n and m >n, then the proportion of c
- Universal #845: There are no initial or final clusters in which all obstruent combinations are heterogeneous in regard to voic
- Universal #846: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal (voiced or unvoiced) followed
- Universal #847: A similar statement (cf. ) for initial clusters holds in almost all cases (that is, the existence of at least
- Universal #848: In initial clusters, the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least
- Universal #849: Languages with stop + stop almost always have both stop + fricative and fricative + stop combinations.
- Universal #850: In final clusters the presence of at least one combination of stop + stop implies the presence of at least one
- Universal #851: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of a liquid + nasal implies the existenc
- Universal #852: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of a
- Universal #853: In final clusters, the existence of at least one liquid + nasal cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #854: In final clusters, the existence of at least one fricative + fricative combination implies the presence of at
- Universal #855: In final clusters, the existence of at least one nasal + liquid cluster implies the existence of at least one
- Universal #856: An unvoiced stop in initial clusters is never preceded immediately by a stop differing only by voicing, and in
- Universal #857: In final clusterss a voiced stop is only followed immediately by a stop differing only in being unvoiced if th
- Universal #858: No succession of consonants only differing in that one is unvoiced and the other is glottalized occurs in init
- Universal #859: No combination of a voiced and glottalized consonant is found in either initial or final clusters.
- Universal #860: In initial and final clusters a lateral is never followed immediately by an r-type sound. In the initial syste
- Universal #861: In final systems, clusters with two members never consist of a hushing followed by a hissing sibilant.
- Universal #862: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence containing a liquid, whether voiced or unvoiced, im
- Universal #863: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence containing a stop immediately followed by an liquid
- Universal #864: Voiced semivowels are not followed by obstruents in initial clusters or preceded by obstruents in final cluste
- Universal #865: Except for voiced nasal followed by homorganic unvoiced obstruent, an unvoiced consonant or sequence of unvoic
- Universal #866: In initial clusters the presence of at least one sequence of voiced nasal + unvoiced homorganic obstruent impl
- Universal #867: In final clusters, except for unvoiced obstruents followed by a voiced nasal, an unvoiced consonant or sequenc
- Universal #868: In initial clusters the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a voiced liquid followed by a nasal i
- Universal #869: In final clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of a nasal followed by a liquid, a nasal
- Universal #870: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the ex
- Universal #871: In final clusters, the existing of at least one sequence consisting of two voiced obstruents implies the exist
- Universal #872: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + nasal implies the
- Universal #873: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one sequence consisting of voiced obstruent + semivowel implies
- Universal #874: In final clusters, the existence of at least one combination of sonant + voiced obstruent implies the existenc
- Universal #875: In initial and final clusters, an unvoiced sonant is never immediately preceded or followed by another unvoice
- Universal #876: If a language has at least one cluster containing n glottalized consonants, it has at least one cluster with n
- Universal #877: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + liquid implies the existence
- Universal #878: In final clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of nasal + nasal implies the existence of
- Universal #879: In initial clusters, the existence of at least one cluster consisting of obstruent + nasal implies the existen
- Universal #880: Every language with final clusters contains at least one cluster with a final obstruent in the dental-alveolar
- Universal #881: Every language with initial clusters contains at least one cluster with an initial consonant in the dental-alv
- Universal #882: A language which has any affricates includes among them at least one in the dental-alveolar or alveo-palatal r
- Universal #1252: The existence of multiplication implies the existence of addition.
- Universal #1289: Subtraction is never expressed by mere sequence of the subtrahend and minuend.
- Universal #1292: Of the four fundamental arithmetical operations --addition and its inverse, subtraction, and multiplication an
- Universal #1316: Every minuend is a base of the system or a multiple of the base.
- Universal #1352: A subtrahend is always a simple lexical expression.
- Universal #1354: Division is always expressed as multiplication by a fraction. Only units or multiples of units are dividends,
- Universal #1355: Every superessive or possessive augend is a serialized augend.
- Universal #1356: A serialized augend is always larger than its addends.
- Universal #1357: Whenever there are three or more summands and at least one is a product, parenthesization starts by separating
- Universal #1358: The maximum number of sporadic addends is two.
- Universal #1359: All adverbially or partitively expressed multiplicands are serialized multiplicands.
- Universal #1360: All the bases of systems are divisible by the fundamental base.
- Universal #1361: A multiplicand in a pseudo-base is always smaller than its multiplier.
- Universal #1362: If a serialized multiplicand is a factor in some product in which the multiplier is larger than the multiplica
- Universal #1363: The maximum number of sporadic factors is two.
- Universal #1364: Only a base is ever multiplied by 1.
- Universal #1365: If the multiplier follows the multiplicand in a particular numeral, it follows in all higher numerals which ar
- Universal #1366: If 1 is expressed as a multiplier with a particular base, it is expressed with all higher bases.
- Universal #1367: The only numeral expressions deleted are those for 1 and for bases of the system.
- Universal #1368: In systems with more than one base, there is a base, the base for predictable explanation, above which in all
- Universal #1369: All numeral series have the same mathematical structure.
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1404: If a language has S (O) V ordering but no SOV orderings, then it will have S (O) ADV V orderings, but no S (O)
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1517: SVO is a grammatical (although marked) word order in all VOS languages.
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1785: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has stop + fricative onset clusters.
- Universal #1786: If a language has stop + fricative onset clusters, then it has stop + stop onset clusters.
- Universal #1787: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has fricative + fricative onset clusters.
- Rara #125: when tone is privative, low tone as marked (hence phonologically active) relative to (phonologically inactive)
- Rara #128: as many as five phonological tone levels, plus two falling and one rising contour tone
Deutsche grammatik. Vierter theil. Göttingen: Dieterichsche Buchhandlung.
Predicate Structure in a Functional Grammar of Hungarian. Dordrecht: Foris.
Constraints on the distribution of NP clauses. Language 53: 104-151.
Universals of topic-comment structure. In Hammond, Moravcsik, & Wirth (eds.) 1988, 209-239.
Cited in:
- Universal #376: In all languages, an expression which refers to the topic of a sentence is typically definite or generic.
- Universal #377: If a language has topic markers, then these will always be postpositional and basic word order in the language
- Universal #378: If a language has topic markers, then it will be highly topic prominent (in the sense of Li & Thompson 1976).
- Universal #379: Every language has syntactic topic constructions in which an expression which refers to the topic of the sente
- Universal #380: Every language has cleft constructions, either wh-clefts or it-clefts or both.
- Universal #381: Every language has “double-subject”* constructions.
- Universal #382: All languages have constructions whose function is to place topic, both old and new, before comment.
- Universal #383: The more topic-prominent a language, the less restricted the distribution of zero anaphora in that language.
- Universal #384: The more topic-prominent a language, the fewer subject-creating constructions it will have.
- Universal #385: If in a language topic-comment structure is coded by intonation, then primary stress always falls inside the f
- Universal #386: The most neutral position for focus in a language will be the position normally occupied by the direct object.
- Universal #1416: All languages have constructions whose primary function is to place new or contrastive topics at the beginning
- Universal #1417: All languages have constructions whose function is to place focus at the beginning of the sentence and old, al
- Universal #1418: No language has constructions whose function is to place new topics at the end of the sentence.
The category of evidentiality. Unpublished ms. http://www.unm.edu/~fdehaan/catevid.txt
Grundzüge der Sprachtypologie. Methodik, Empirie und Systematik der Sprachen Europas. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Lexical suffixes and incorporatin in Mainland Comox. Forum Linguisticum 3: 57-71.
Cited in:
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #1493: Incorporation takes place with the verbs denoting permanent and general activity (also typical or characterist
- Universal #1494: Objects that qualify as generic, non-referential, indefinite, inanimate/non-human, semantically dependent, pra
- Universal #1495: As a consequence of the tendency of incorporated nouns to be generic in meaning, they do not seem to be able t
Linguistic universals as general tendencies. In Shirô Hattori & Kazuko Inoue (eds.), Proceedings of the XIIIth International Congress of Linguists, August 29th – September 4th 1982, Tokyo, 936-940. Tokyo: Tokyo Press.
Precedence among predicates. Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 1: 3-41.
Scrambling: What’s the state of the art? In S. M. Powers & C. Hamann (eds.), The Acquisition of Scrambling and Cliticization, 19-40. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Iconic and economic motivation. Language 59: 781-819.
Cited in:
- Universal #165: If a pronominal reflexive is used in the nth person, then it is used in the (n+1)st person.
- Universal #610: If there is Switch-Reference marking with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3rd person, but not vice versa
- Universal #611: If there are reflexive pronouns distinct from non-reflexive ones with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3r
- Universal #612: Reference clauses for Switch-Reference marking are never subordinate to Marking clauses.
- Universal #613: When the Switch-Reference marker is a suffix the Marking clause precedes theReference clause; when the Switch-
- Universal #614: If a language has Switch-Reference marking between non-adjacent clauses, it will also mark Switch-reference be
- Universal #615: If there is Switch-Reference marking, languages will mostly be verb-final.
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
- Universal #1790: The shorter a linguistic expression is, the more likely it is will be associated with familiarity and high fre
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
- Universal #1930: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
- Universal #1931: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
Natural Syntax: Iconicity and Erosion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #137: In no language will the morphological bulk of a direct case affix exceed that of the oblique case affixes, as
- Universal #165: If a pronominal reflexive is used in the nth person, then it is used in the (n+1)st person.
- Universal #611: If there are reflexive pronouns distinct from non-reflexive ones with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3r
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
- Universal #1930: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
- Universal #1931: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
Iconicity in Syntax. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #137: In no language will the morphological bulk of a direct case affix exceed that of the oblique case affixes, as
- Universal #165: If a pronominal reflexive is used in the nth person, then it is used in the (n+1)st person.
- Universal #611: If there are reflexive pronouns distinct from non-reflexive ones with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3r
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
- Universal #1930: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
- Universal #1931: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
Switch-Reference and Universal Grammar. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #165: If a pronominal reflexive is used in the nth person, then it is used in the (n+1)st person.
- Universal #610: If there is Switch-Reference marking with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3rd person, but not vice versa
- Universal #611: If there are reflexive pronouns distinct from non-reflexive ones with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3r
- Universal #612: Reference clauses for Switch-Reference marking are never subordinate to Marking clauses.
- Universal #613: When the Switch-Reference marker is a suffix the Marking clause precedes theReference clause; when the Switch-
- Universal #614: If a language has Switch-Reference marking between non-adjacent clauses, it will also mark Switch-reference be
- Universal #615: If there is Switch-Reference marking, languages will mostly be verb-final.
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
- Universal #1790: The shorter a linguistic expression is, the more likely it is will be associated with familiarity and high fre
- Universal #1929: If a language has two near-synonymous constructions which differ structurally in linguistic distance, they wil
- Universal #1930: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
- Universal #1931: If a language has two modifier constructions that differ in linear order and in linguistic distance, the const
Old French nasalization and universals of sound change. Journal of French Language Studies 3: 145-64.
Universals of Sound Change in Nasalization. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cited in:
- Universal #1287:
- Universal #1674: If a language has palatalized a consonant before [e], then it must necessarily have previously palatalized thi
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1792: Vowel Length Parameter:Vowel nasalization and N-deletion, as seperate and successive processes, occur preferen
- Universal #1793: N-deletion occurs first in unstressed/atonic syllables before spreading to stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1795: Extended Stress Parameter:Nasalization and N-deletion develop successively in a predictable manner, occurring
- Universal #1796: Nasalization will be phonologized first on oxytone vowels before nasals, subsequently on penultimate stressed
- Universal #1797: Nasals are deleted preferentially before consonants word-medially than word-finally (first before consonants a
- Universal #1798: N-deletion is preferred preceding fricatives rather than stops.
- Universal #1799: Nasalization before intervocalic nasals was found to occur only if nasalization phenomena were already evident
- Universal #1800: Tautosyllablic distinctive nasalization developed sooner word-finally than in preconsonantal position.
- Universal #1801: In preconsonantal position distinctive nasalization develops preferentially before continuants.
- Universal #1802: Preferential Vowel-Lengthening Parameter:Vowel lengthening preferably occurs before the cluster nasal + fricat
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
Studies in Syntactic Typology. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
The sonority hierarchy. In Anthony Bruck, Robert A. Fox, & Michael W. La Galy (ed.), Papers from the Parasession on Natural Phonology, 131-145. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
“Pirzwa kaszn tworcza naszego, nemasz mecz boga gynego”: Die Herausbildung und Entwicklung der Modalauxiliare im Polnischen. In Tanja Anstatt (ed.), Entwicklung in slavischen Sprachen, 83-167. München: Sagner.
Transitivity alternation of the anticausative type. Arbeitspapiere des Instituts für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität zu Köln, Neue Folge, 3.
The grammaticization of passive morphology. Studies in Language 14: 25-72.
Cited in:
- Universal #1142: The passive-to-ergative change is unidirectional. There are no passive constructions which have been shown to
- Universal #1143: If a verbal morpheme has both the reflexive and the passive use, then it will also have the anticausative use.
- Universal #1144: Passive constructions without morphology on the verb are rare or non-existent.
- Universal #1145: The most frequent type of a passive construction is that with a stem affix. Less frequent morphological expres
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1147: A causative can become a passive, but a passive cannot become a causative.
The converb as a cross-linguistically valid category. In Haspelmath & König (eds.) 1995, 1-56.
Indefinite Pronouns. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1106: Yet all human languages classify actions into two basic types: those involving one obligatory participant, whi
- Universal #1763: I know of no cases where a complete indefinite pronoun has been borrowed.
- Universal #1935: If there is a word-form loan of a free-choice indefinite in a language, then there is a word-form loan of othe
- Universal #1938: If there is a word-form loan of other than negative indefinite (excluding determiners), then it is likely that
Explaining article-possessor complementarity: Economic motivation in noun phrase syntax. Language 75: 227-243.
Cited in:
- Universal #1294: If possessed NPs show the definite article, then so do non-possessed NPs.
- Universal #1295: If possessed NPs with a preposed possessor show the definite article, then so do possessed NPs with a postpose
- Universal #1296: If possessed NPs with a kinship term as head noun show the definite article, then so do possessed NPs with a n
Converbs in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: Structure and Meaning of Adverbial Verb Forms – Adverbial Participles, Gerunds. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bipartition et tripartition dans les sytèmes de tones. BSLP 56: 163-80.
Cited in:
Implicational universals as predictors of word order change. Language 55: 618-648.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #175: If a language has Prep word order, then if the genitive follows the noun, the relative clause follows the noun
- Universal #424: If a language has Prep word order, then if the verb position is not SOV, the relative clause follows the noun.
On implicational and distributional universals of word order. Journal of Linguistics 16: 193-235.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #1118: VO languages are exceptionlessly Comp-initial. OV languages exemplify both final complementizers and initial c
Word Order Universals. New York: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #70: If a language has prepositions and any verb position other than SVO, then if the adjectives follows the noun,
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #72: If a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, the adjective follow
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #74: If a language has Prep word order, then if the numeral follows the noun, the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #75: If a language has noun before numeral, then it has noun before adjective.
- Universal #87: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative follows the noun, the relative clause follows the
- Universal #88: If a language has noun before demonstrative, then it has noun before relative clause.
- Universal #91: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the relative clause follows the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #95: Postpositional Noun Modifier Hierarchy
- Universal #96: Postpositional Noun Modifier Hierarchy expanded
- Universal #97: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adverb follows the adjective within the adjective phrase, the s
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #99: Heaviness Serialization Principle:Rel ≥ Gen ≥ Adj ≥ (Dem/Num).Relative heaviness is a compos
- Universal #100: Mobility Principle:(Adj/Dem/Num) ≥(Rel/Gen).This principle claims that Adj, Dem, and Num are more mobile th
- Universal #101: If the possessive adjective follows the noun, then the descriptive adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #102: If a language has Postp word order, then if the possessive adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #121: If a language is prepositional, then if the numeral follows the noun, the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #126: If a language has noun before numeral, then it has noun before relative clause.
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #173: If a language is prepositional, then if the demonstrative follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #174: If a language is prepositional, then if the numeral follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #175: If a language has Prep word order, then if the genitive follows the noun, the relative clause follows the noun
- Universal #176: If the genitive follows the noun, then the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #177: If a language has Postp word order, then if the demonstrative precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #178: If a language has Postp word order, then if the numeral precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #424: If a language has Prep word order, then if the verb position is not SOV, the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #607: If the possessive adjective follows the noun, then the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #1338: Prepositional Noun-Modifier Hierarchy (PrNMH): If a language is prepositional, then if Relative clause Noun or
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
A parsing theory of word order universals. Linguistic Inquiry 21: 223-261.
Cited in:
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #70: If a language has prepositions and any verb position other than SVO, then if the adjectives follows the noun,
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #72: If a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, the adjective follow
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #74: If a language has Prep word order, then if the numeral follows the noun, the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #75: If a language has noun before numeral, then it has noun before adjective.
- Universal #87: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative follows the noun, the relative clause follows the
- Universal #88: If a language has noun before demonstrative, then it has noun before relative clause.
- Universal #91: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the relative clause follows the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #95: Postpositional Noun Modifier Hierarchy
- Universal #96: Postpositional Noun Modifier Hierarchy expanded
- Universal #97: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adverb follows the adjective within the adjective phrase, the s
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #99: Heaviness Serialization Principle:Rel ≥ Gen ≥ Adj ≥ (Dem/Num).Relative heaviness is a compos
- Universal #100: Mobility Principle:(Adj/Dem/Num) ≥(Rel/Gen).This principle claims that Adj, Dem, and Num are more mobile th
- Universal #101: If the possessive adjective follows the noun, then the descriptive adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #102: If a language has Postp word order, then if the possessive adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes
- Universal #121: If a language is prepositional, then if the numeral follows the noun, the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #126: If a language has noun before numeral, then it has noun before relative clause.
- Universal #173: If a language is prepositional, then if the demonstrative follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #174: If a language is prepositional, then if the numeral follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #175: If a language has Prep word order, then if the genitive follows the noun, the relative clause follows the noun
- Universal #176: If the genitive follows the noun, then the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #177: If a language has Postp word order, then if the demonstrative precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #178: If a language has Postp word order, then if the numeral precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #424: If a language has Prep word order, then if the verb position is not SOV, the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #607: If the possessive adjective follows the noun, then the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #1118: VO languages are exceptionlessly Comp-initial. OV languages exemplify both final complementizers and initial c
Processing complexity and filler-gap dependencies across grammars. Language 75: 244-285.
Cited in:
- Universal #619: If a given language presents NPrel as a pronoun for any position in the hierarchy , then it presents NPrel as
- Universal #622: If a given language can relativize a position low on the Accessibility Hierarchy by gapping then it can genera
- Universal #1377: Filler-Gap Complexity Hypothesis: If Filler-Gap Domain (FGD) of complexity n on a complexity hierarchy H is gr
- Universal #1378: Clause embedding hierarchy: S[...VP’[ ... Oi ...] ...] > S[...S’[... Oi ...] ...] > S[ ...NP[Det N S’[ ... Oi
- Universal #1379: Subordinate Gap/No Gap Hierarchy: If a matrix filler can be matched with a gap in a subordinate clause of comp
- Universal #1380: Relative Clause and WH-Question Filler: In languages that have filler-gap structures for both relative clauses
- Universal #1381: Bridging Verb Hierarchy: If a bridging verb or verb complex V of semantic specificity n is grammatical in an F
- Universal #1382: Head Noun Phrase Hierarchy:If an NP with head noun (phrase) N of semantic specificity n on the path from fille
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1385: Gap Subcategorizor Hierarchy:If a gap can be subcategorized by P, it can be subcategorized by V.
Prefixing and suffixing universals in relation to basic word order. Lingua 74: 219-259.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #65: If a language has SOV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun. If
- Universal #66: If a language has OV word order, then if the adjective precedes the noun, the genitive precedes the noun.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #69: If a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #70: If a language has prepositions and any verb position other than SVO, then if the adjectives follows the noun,
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #72: If a language has Prep word order, then if the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, the adjective follow
- Universal #74: If a language has Prep word order, then if the numeral follows the noun, the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #91: IF a language has Prep word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the relative clause follows the nou
- Universal #92: Prepositional Noun Modifier Principle
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #424: If a language has Prep word order, then if the verb position is not SOV, the relative clause follows the noun.
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1309: If a language is postpositional, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1310: If a language has SOV, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1311: If a language is postpositional, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than
- Universal #1312: If a language has SOV, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1313: If a language is postpositional, aspect affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequen
- Universal #1314: Valence affixes on verb (i.e. intransitive/transitive/ditransitive affixes), if there are any, are suffixed wi
- Universal #1315: If a language has SOV, causative affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with more than chance frequency.
- Universal #1338: Prepositional Noun-Modifier Hierarchy (PrNMH): If a language is prepositional, then if Relative clause Noun or
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
Respect degrees in pronominal reference. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 151-212.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #639: Number is the pronominal category most widely used among different languages in alternation of reference by pe
- Universal #640: Variation in number to show degrees of respect or social distance is used in pronominal reference only to indi
- Universal #641: In variation of number in pronominal reference showing different degrees of respect or social distance, the no
- Universal #642: A repluralized or a double plural pronominal form indicates greater respect or social distance than an origina
- Universal #643: Variation of more than one pronominal category may occur in the same language in reference showing different d
- Universal #644: Variation of the category of person in personal pronouns so as to show degrees of respect or social distance u
- Universal #645: In languages in which variation of person in pronominal reference is used to show degrees of respect or social
- Universal #646: Variation of person in pronominal reference indicates greater difference in degree of respect or social distan
- Universal #647: Use of the 3rd person personal pronoun to show greater respect or social distance than the 2nd person pronoun
- Universal #648: If the gender of a 3rd person personal pronoun does not vary when used in reference to the addressee(s), in a
- Universal #649: Variation of gender so as to employ one which does not correspond to the notional category of the sex of the r
- Universal #650: In a language in which categories of proximity are employed to show degrees of respect or social distance, the
- Universal #651: In a language in which categories of definiteness are employed to show degrees of respect or social distance,
- Universal #652: Reflexive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and pronominalized nouns or pronominalized nominal expressions use
- Universal #657: Honorific affixes to pronouns are more common than pejorative ones; if a language has pejorative pronominal af
- Universal #658: In languages in which categories of proximity, inclusiveness and definiteness are employed to convey social me
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #680: If a language uses relative pronouns of interrogative form in ad-relative* clauses, then in that language inte
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #829: If a language has correlative relative constructions, it does not have prenominal ad-relative* clauses.
- Universal #830: Relative markers of the same form as interrogative pronouns are found only in postnominal ad-relatives* (and t
- Universal #1398: All languages have non-reduced adverbial constructions.If a language has reduced adverbials, these are always
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1902: The use of variation of any pronominal category to show degrees of respect or social distance is more widespre
- Universal #1903: Processess of variation of the type of pronoun used in reference for showing degrees of respect or social dist
- Universal #1904: Processess of pronominal reference for showing degrees of respect or social distance occur more commonly in re
- Universal #1905: A pronominal form used for showing greater respect or social distance is never eliminated from the system of r
Functional relationships in grammar. Language 51: 89-104.
Determination in some East African languages. In Brettschneider & Lehmann (eds.) 1980, 181-186.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #599: The possessive adjective is not separated from the head noun by any constituent except another genuine determi
- Universal #600: The evaluative adjective always precedes the affective adjective.
- Universal #1928: If more than one modifier occurs before the noun, the order is always Dem < Num < Adj.
Auxiliaries: Cognitive Forces and Grammaticalization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #503: In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with
- Universal #1180: Terms for ‘pupil (of the eye)’ are most likely to be derived from nouns denoting a small human like a baby, or
- Universal #1181: There are contrasting transfer patterns for thumbs and big toes on the one hand and the remaining digits on th
- Universal #1182: The notion ‘muscle’ is expressed predominantly by using small mammals as structural templates. As in the case
- Universal #1183: For the concept ‘testicle’, by far the most widespread source is provided by terms for ‘egg’, alternative opti
- Universal #1386: No language with SVO or VSO basic order will have a clause final auxiliary.
- Universal #1389: No language with free word order will have a clause final auxiliary.
Cognitive Foundations of Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #1165: If the indefinite article determines mass nouns, then it is also used for plural nouns.
- Universal #1166: If the indefinite article determines plural nouns, then it is also used for singular nouns.
- Universal #1167: If a language has a grammaticalized indefinite article, it is likely to also have a definite article, while th
- Universal #1177: BACK > FRONT > UP, IN > DOWN. If any one of the five concepts is derived from the body-part model, then none o
- Universal #1178: If in a given language a term for a cardinal direction is introduced, then the sun provides the most likely mo
- Universal #1180: Terms for ‘pupil (of the eye)’ are most likely to be derived from nouns denoting a small human like a baby, or
- Universal #1181: There are contrasting transfer patterns for thumbs and big toes on the one hand and the remaining digits on th
- Universal #1182: The notion ‘muscle’ is expressed predominantly by using small mammals as structural templates. As in the case
- Universal #1183: For the concept ‘testicle’, by far the most widespread source is provided by terms for ‘egg’, alternative opti
- Universal #1188: Expressions for deictic orientation may derive from terms for body parts or environmental landmarks but never
- Universal #1189: Terms for deictic orientation may themselves serve as models for developing nomenclatures for cardinal orienta
- Universal #1190: Sun and wind provide important templates for expressions of cardinal orientation but apparently never for deic
- Universal #1515: In languages whose numeral systems consists of less than five numerals, the highest numeral is likely to be de
Grammaticalization: A Conceptual Framework. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Non-Verbal Predication: Theory, Typology, Diachrony. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #248: Parts of speech hierarchy:verb > noun > adjective > adverb.This hierarchy says that a category of predicates i
- Universal #249: Predicate hierarchy 1A:non-presentative ascriptive predications (Xi)loc > A > N > (Xi)poss.This hierarchy
- Universal #250: All truly flexible languages allow all classes of predicate, up to and including possessive ones, to be used p
- Universal #251: All rigid languages for which the class of manner adverbs is irrelevant or a small and closed one do not allow
- Universal #252: All rigid languages for which the adjective class is irrelevant or a small and closed one do not allow the pre
- Universal #253: Predicate hierarchy 1B:(Xi/0)loc > (Xi)possthis hierarchy states that presentative localizing predications are
The typology of 1st person marking and ist cognitive background. In Masako K. Hiraga, Chris Sinha, & Sherman Wilcox (eds.), Cultural, Psychological, and Typological Issues in Cognitive Linguistics (Selected Papers of the Bi-annual ICLA Meeting in Albuquerque, July 1995), 285-298. Amsterdam: Bemjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #1885: If a language has different tense categories and shows a split between 1st versus 2nd/3rd person marking in on
- Universal #1886: Languages which show a split between 1st versus 2nd/3rd person marking in the past tense, always have such a s
- Universal #1887: If there is a split between 1st versus 2nd/3rd person marking in modal categories, then it is more likely to o
- Universal #1888: A split between 1st and 2nd person versus 3rd person marking is more likely with a verb marked for direct or s
- Universal #1889: A split between 1st and 2nd person versus 3rd person marking is more likely with the verbal category assertive
Parts-of-speech systems as a basic typological parameter. Handout from the 2nd Biannual Meeting of the Association for Linguistic Typology, 11-14 September 1997, Eugene, Oregon.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #1022: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-2/3, then it has predicate-initial or predicate-final ba
- Universal #1023: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-3/4, then it does not allow variation in the ordering of
- Universal #1024: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-3/4 and has Predicate-final word order, then it has Modi
- Universal #1025: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-3/4 and has Predicate-initial word order, then it has He
- Universal #1026: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-3/4, then it does not allow variation in the order of He
- Universal #1027: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-2/3 and has Predicate-final basic word order, then it ha
- Universal #1028: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-2/3 and has Predicate-initial basic word order, then it
- Universal #1029: If a language has a parts-of speech system of types 1-2/3, then it does not allow variation in the order of He
- Universal #1030: Languages with dominant order VSO and parts-of-speech system of types 1-3/4 always have the adjective after th
- Universal #1346: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun and the language has a parts-
Language Universals, Markedness Theory, and Natural Phonetic Processes. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Genitival agreement in Awngi: Variation on an Afroasiatic theme. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 325-338.
On Semantics. Linguistic Inquiry 16: 547-594.
Sound Symbolism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
On the principles of phonematics. In Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 49-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
The problem of universals in language. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, 1-29.
Cited in:
- Universal #496: Every human language has a stock of elements that shift their denotations depending on elementary features of
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #1094: Nasal stop systems do not have more place of articulation contrasts than corresponding oral stop systems.
- Universal #1324: Among the deictic elements of every human language is one that denotes the speaker and one that denotes the ad
- Universal #1325: Every human language has proper names.
- Universal #1326: No human language has a grammatically homogeneous vocabulary.
- Universal #1327: A major form-class distinction reminiscent of “noun” vs. “verb” is universal, though not always at the same si
- Universal #1328: Every human language has a common clause type with bipartite structure in which the constituents can reasonabl
- Universal #1329: Every human language has a distinction between one-referent and two-referent predicators.
- Universal #1330: In every human language, redundancy, measured in phonological terms, hovers near 50%.
- Universal #1331: Every human language makes use of distinction of vowel color.
- Universal #1332: A historical tendency toward phonological symmetry is universal.
- Universal #1333: There are gaps, asymmetries, or “configurational pressures” in every phonological system, no matter when exami
- Universal #1334: Every phonological system contrasts phonemes that are typically stops with phonemes that are never stops.
- Universal #1335: No phonological system has fewer than two contrasting positions of articulation for stops.
- Universal #1336: If a language has a vowel system, it has contrasts of tongue height in that system.
- Universal #1337: If we define a ‘vowel system’ to include all the segmental phonemes that occur as syllable peaks, then every l
- Universal #1867: The acute/grave opposition of compact nasal consonants implies an identical opposition of compact oral stops.
- Universal #1893: Languages possessing the pairs voice–voiceless, aspirate–non-aspirate, have also a phoneme /h/.
Sprachliche Universalien. Bochum: Brockmeyer.
Cited in:
- Universal #688: All languages have the place distinctions of high and low and of front and back in their vowel systems; hence
- Universal #690: CV (Consonant + Vowel) is the only universal model of the syllable. There are languages lacking syllables with
- Universal #692: The combination of two obstruent consonants which are different only with regard to their belonging to differe
- Universal #693: The occurrence of consonant-combinations in initial and final position of words implies their possibility in m
- Universal #694: In initial sounds: the heterorganic sequence of an obstruent consonant and a nasal consonant (e.g. bn) implies
- Universal #695: Assimilation rule: a nasal consonant assimilates to its following consonant concerning its place of articulati
- Universal #696: The two intonation shapes that are found everywhere are fall and rise, with their targets, low and high. The m
- Universal #698:
- Universal #699:
- Universal #700:
- Universal #701:
- Universal #702: Languages with eight or more vowels have /e/.
- Universal #703: Languages with nine or more vowels generally have /o/.
- Universal #705: Languages with two or more interior vowels always have a high one.
- Universal #706: The number of vowels in a column of interior vowels cannot exceed the number in the front or back columns.
- Universal #707: The number of height distinctions in front vowels is equal to or greater than the number in back vowels.
- Universal #708: There is a tendency for high and low short vowels to be more central than the corresponding long vowels.
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #710: If a nasal vowel system is smaller than the corresponding basic vowel system, it is most often a mid vowel tha
- Universal #712: Systems in which high tones are marked occur more often than systems in which low tones are marked.
- Universal #720: Phonetically Central tones are unmarked, Extreme tones are highly marked.
- Universal #724: If a language has contour tones, it also has level tones.
- Universal #730: Vowels on low tones are longer than those on high tones, other things being equal.
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
The development of nasalized vowels in the Teke language group, Bantu. In Koen Bogers and Harry van der Hulst (eds.), The Phonological Representation of Suprasegmentals, 359-379. Dordrecht: Foris.
Phonetic conditioning for the development of nasalization in Teke. Papers of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences 11, 2: 273-276.
Why are the high vowels harder to nasalize? In Rood (ed.) 1984, 195-203.
Reflexion sur une double correlation typologique. Journal of West African Languages 7-2: 59-68.
The group genitive and type 24 languages. In Caroline Duncan-Rose & Theo Vennemann (eds.), On Language: Rhetorica, Phonologica, Syntactica. A Festschrift for Robert P. Stockwell from his Friends and Colleagues, 381-388. London: Routledge.
Adjunct extraction. Journal of Linguistics 31: 195-226.
Word accent. In Harry van der Hulst (ed.),Word-Prosodic Systems in the Languages of Europe, 3-160. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Über den Dualis. Abhandlungen der historisch philologischen Klasse der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus dem Jahre 1827, 161-187.
Cited in:
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
Über die Kawi-Sprache auf der Insel Java, nebst einer Einleitung über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts. Berlin: Dümmler.
Cited in:
- Universal #1126: If predicates can incorporate their arguments (i.e., verbs their subjects and objects), then head nouns can in
- Universal #1127: If nouns for alienable possession can incorporate their possessive pronouns, then nouns for inalienable posses
- Universal #1128: If nominal subjects can be incorporated into verbs, then nominal non-subjects can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1129: If pronominal objects can be incorporated, then possessor pronouns can also be incorporated;if possessor prono
- Universal #1130: If nouns can be incorporated, then pronouns can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1131: When nouns and pronouns can be incorporated, they have a special incorporated form (uninflected in the case of
- Universal #1132: If subjects and objects can be incorporated into verbs, then they are not case-marked when occurring absolutel
- Universal #1133: If there is incorporation, then the syntactic relations between the complex of incorporated and incorporator a
- Universal #1134: If a 3rd person pronoun can be incorporated when a corresponding absolute noun is present, then it can also be
Humboldt, Wilhelm von (18??). Verschiedenheit des Sprachbaus. (which edition?)
Universal development of emotion categories in natural languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77: 247-278.
Über Aspiration: Ein Kapitel aus der Natürlichen Phonologie. Tübingen: Narr.
Cited in:
- Universal #290: Prevocalic aspiration is typologically more frequent than postconsonantal aspiration.
- Universal #388: /h/ occurs more frequently preceding a low vowel than a high vowel.
- Universal #390: Aspirated consonants occur mostly prevocalically, then postvocalically, preconsonantally, and in (absolute) fi
- Universal #391: Aspirated consonants occur more often preceding a primary stressed vowel than a secondary one and occur more f
- Universal #405: Aspirated non-continuous obstruents occur more frequently than aspirated continuous ones.
- Universal #412: Aspirated voiceless consonants (especially obstruents) occur more frequently then aspirated voiced ones (espec
- Universal #453: Postaspirated consonants occur more frequently than pre-aspirated ones.
- Universal #457: /h/ occurs more often in absolute initial position than in relative initial position./h/ occurs more often in
- Universal #458: /h/ is more likely to occur preceding a velar vowel than a palatal vowel.
- Universal #806: /h/ precedes primary stressed syllables more often than secondary stressed syllables./h/ precedes secondary st
- Universal #807: The sequence hV occurs more often than Vh.
Consonant types and tone. Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 1.
Cited in:
- Universal #942: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization of nasal vowels with oral vowels, this occurs next
- Universal #1034: Only the intense pole – loud stress, high pitch and length – ever has the accentual property. There is no lang
- Universal #1075: While a tone can be restricted in occurrence by an adjacent voiced vs. voiceless consonant, no stress language
On the nature of linguistic stress. Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 4: 37-82.
Cited in:
- Universal #1034: Only the intense pole – loud stress, high pitch and length – ever has the accentual property. There is no lang
- Universal #1036: Morphemically simple phonological words never have more than one main stress.
- Universal #1038: Morphemically simple words must have one main stress.
- Universal #1051: If there is tonal ascent, then there is also tonal descent.
- Universal #1067: When stress is phonologically predictable (i.e., demarcative), it mostly falls on initial syllables, somewhat
- Universal #1068: Languages often have mechanisms to remove stress from final position, often putting it in penultimate position
- Universal #1069: No language has a rule which (i) places stress on antepenultimate syllables, but (ii) fails to place a stress
- Universal #1070: Syllables tend to weaken more after stress than before stress.
- Universal #1071: If there is a contrast between light and heavy syllables, then there is a contrast of vowel length.
- Universal #1072: If there is a contrast between light and heavy syllables, then there tends to be a contrast of consonant lengt
- Universal #1073: When stress is sensitive to syllable weight, the general case is that a short vowel in open syllable position
- Universal #1074: If in a language phonemic stress co-exists with phonemic quantity, one of the two elements is subordinate to t
- Universal #1075: While a tone can be restricted in occurrence by an adjacent voiced vs. voiceless consonant, no stress language
- Universal #1076: Where stress is demarcative (i.e., in languages with fixed stress), syllabification across word boundaries oug
- Universal #1077: Syllabification across a word boundary may be less likely in a language with initial stress than in a language
- Rara #21: word-stress on postinitial syllable (or mora)
- Rara #23: word-stress (in non-focussed or naturally focussed phrases) phonetically implemented by low rather than high p
Word demarcation. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 443-470.
The rise and fall of contour tones. Handout of paper at the Workshop on the Phonology-Phonetics Interface, Schloss Freudental, 4-7 June 2003.
Hyman, Larry & Russel G. Schuh (1972 [1974]). Universals of tone rules: Evidence from West Africa. Working Papers in Language Universals 10: 1-46. Also published in Linguistic Inquiry 5: 81-115.
Some universals for quantifier scope. In John P. Kimball (ed.), Syntax and Semantics, Volume 4, 37-58. New York: Academic Press.
A propos des voyelles nasales. Bulletin de la société de linguistique 38: 267-279.
Tipologija i sravnitel’no-istoriceskoje jazykoznanije. [Typology and comparative-historical linguistics.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 1958-5: 34-43.
Nootkan vocative vocalism and its implications. In Hinton, Nichols, & Ohala (eds.) 1994. 23-39.
The null subject parameter and parametric theory. In Osvaldo Jaeggli & Kenneth J. Safir (eds.), The Null Subject Parameter, 1-44. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.
Cited in:
- Universal #209: An opposition of two vowels of the same degree of aperture is not present as long as a corresponding vocalic o
- Universal #210: A differentiation of rounded vowels according to degree of aperture cannot arise as long as the same oppositio
- Universal #212: IF a language has a vocalic opposition, THEN it has a consonantal opposition.
- Universal #218:
- Universal #224: The first consonantal opposition is that of nasal and oral stop, which is followed by the opposition of labial
- Universal #284: It is apparently a universal fact, then, that palatoalveolar sounds develop in child language only after denta
- Universal #715:
- Universal #805: No language has back consonants without containing front consonants.
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #810: The more complex a phonemic category is, the weaker is its capacity to split.
- Universal #811: In the linguistic systems of the world, fricatives cannot exist unless stops exist as well.
- Universal #812: In child language, these two consonantal oppositions (nasal vs. oral stop, labials vs. dentals) are followed b
Jakobson, Roman (1958 [1971]). Typological studies and their contribution to historical comparative linguistics. In Proceedings of the 8th International Congress of Linguists, Oslo. Also published in Roman Jakobson Selected Writings, Volume 1: 523-532. The Hague: Mouton.
Implications of language universals for linguistics. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, 263-278.
Cited in:
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #1017: A compact nasal consonant implies the the presence of two diffuse consonants, one acute and the other grave.
- Universal #1867: The acute/grave opposition of compact nasal consonants implies an identical opposition of compact oral stops.
- Universal #1893: Languages possessing the pairs voice–voiceless, aspirate–non-aspirate, have also a phoneme /h/.
Typological studies and their contribution to historical comparative linguistics. In Roman Jakobson (ed.), Selected Writings. 523-532. The Hague: Mouton.
Cited in:
- Universal #187: No language adds to the pair /t/ - /d/ a voiced aspirate /dh/ without having its voiceless counterpart /th/.
- Universal #690: CV (Consonant + Vowel) is the only universal model of the syllable. There are languages lacking syllables with
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #811: In the linguistic systems of the world, fricatives cannot exist unless stops exist as well.
- Universal #888: There are no languages with rounded front vowels but without rounded back vowels.
- Universal #1074: If in a language phonemic stress co-exists with phonemic quantity, one of the two elements is subordinate to t
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1893: Languages possessing the pairs voice–voiceless, aspirate–non-aspirate, have also a phoneme /h/.
Fundamentals of Language I. Phonology and Phonetics. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
Cited in:
- Universal #690: CV (Consonant + Vowel) is the only universal model of the syllable. There are languages lacking syllables with
- Universal #1074: If in a language phonemic stress co-exists with phonemic quantity, one of the two elements is subordinate to t
- Universal #1894: The relation of the retroflex to the dental consonants proves to be a mere variety of the opposition of pharyn
Svjaz’ mezdu semantikoj predikatno-aktantnogo glagola i oformleniem ego aktanta v jazykax razlicnyx tipov [Correlation between the semantics of verbs with predicative complements and their actance patterning in different type languages.] In Semantika i sintaksis konstrukcij s predikativnymi aktantami, 41-56. Leningrad: Nauka.
Empty categories, case, and configurationality. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 2: 39-76.
Die sprachliche Kategorie des Numerus.Wissenschaftliche Zeitung der Universität Rostock, Reihe Gesellschafts- und Sprachwissenschaften 1,2: 1-21.
Jespersen, Otto (1933 [1960]). Voiced and voiceless fricatives in English. Linguistica. In Selected Writings of Otto Jespersen, 536-573. London: Allen & Unwin and Tokyo: Senjo.
A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part III. London, Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Karen Linguisic Studies: Description, Comparison and Texts. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Clause combining in Apache. In Evans & Sasse (eds.) 2002, 167-183.
Adpositions and locationals: Typology and diachronic development. Working Papers on Language Universals 19: 21-54.
Cited in:
- Universal #1218: If there are local cases, then basic word order tends to be SVO or SOV.
- Universal #1219: Nouns denoting body parts are the preferred sources for the grammaticalization of local adpositions.
- Universal #1237: All languages have at least one so-called “primitive” adposition which specifies location. If there is another
The renewal of case morphology: Sources and constraints. Working Papers on Language Universals 20: 107-152.
Nefinitnye skazuemye v nezavisimom predlozenii. [Nonfinite predicates in the main clause.] Doctoral dissertation, Moskovskij gosudarstvennyj universitet.
Cited in:
- Universal #1656: If in a language finite and non-finite (attributive and/or argument) functions of a form appear to be equally
- Universal #1657: If in a language finite and non-finite (attributive and/or argument) functions of converbs are equally marked
- Universal #1658: If a language is non-tensed, the nominal predicate does not require a copula.
Split syntactic ergativity: Toward an implicational hierarchy. Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung 47: 78-98.
Universal phonetics and the organization of grammars. Phonetic Linguistics, Essays in Honour of Peter Lagefoged, 115-32. Orlando: Academic Press.
The Functional Principle: Generalizing the notion of ‘subject of’. Chicago Linguistic Socienty 10: 298-309.
Cited in:
- Universal #1196: If the head of a restrictive relative clause does not function as the subject of the restricting clause then t
- Universal #1197: If the head of a restrictive relative clause does function as the subject of the restricting clause then no pe
- Universal #1419: If heads of possessive constructions agree with their possessors in a given language then verbs agree with sub
- Universal #1420: No language has reflexive relative pronouns.
Language variation and the logical structure of universal grammar. In Hansjakob Seiler (ed.), Language Universals, 89-123. Tübingen: Narr.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #677: With few exceptions, postnominal relative clauses in VSO languages contain either (a) an initial relative part
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #824: While both prenominal and postnominal relative clauses may be formed by gapping, gapping is the overwhelmingly
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1517: SVO is a grammatical (although marked) word order in all VOS languages.
- Universal #1518: If a language is subject-final then either transitive verbs of unmarked sentences agree with no full noun phra
- Universal #1519: If transitive verbs in subject-final languages present agreement at all, then they have a prefixal (pre-verb s
- Universal #1520: Subject-final languages have relatively little nominal case marking.
- Universal #1521: Subject-final languages are generally prepositional rather than postpositional.
- Universal #1522: In subject-final languages noun phrase questions can always be formed by putting the question word, e.g., Who?
- Universal #1523: All subject-final languages present morphemically independent subordinate conjunctions which precede a finite
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1526: Subject-final languages do not have relative pronouns.
- Universal #1527: All subject-final languages possess articles. With more than chance frequency subject-final languages have def
- Universal #1528: [In subject-final languages] With much greater than chance frequency numerical expressions precede the nouns t
- Universal #1529: [In subject-final languages] With much greater than chance frequency articles precede the nouns.
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1532: All subject-final languages have passive forms of verbs (ones in which the object of the active verb functions
- Universal #1533: ‘Passive’ is generally marked in the verbal morphology in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1534: Subject-final languages generally do not have overt copulas.
- Universal #1547: In verb-initial languages, where case marking exists, it is normally done by prepositions.
- Universal #1563: Verb-initial languages always have a passive voice and it is almost always marked in the verbal morphology (ra
- Universal #1890: The Cleftability Hierarchy:Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Co
The syntax of subject-final languages. In Lehmann (ed.), 267-328.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #677: With few exceptions, postnominal relative clauses in VSO languages contain either (a) an initial relative part
- Universal #679: If a language has replacive relative clauses, then in the basic word order of the language verbs follow their
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #824: While both prenominal and postnominal relative clauses may be formed by gapping, gapping is the overwhelmingly
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
- Universal #1517: SVO is a grammatical (although marked) word order in all VOS languages.
- Universal #1518: If a language is subject-final then either transitive verbs of unmarked sentences agree with no full noun phra
- Universal #1519: If transitive verbs in subject-final languages present agreement at all, then they have a prefixal (pre-verb s
- Universal #1520: Subject-final languages have relatively little nominal case marking.
- Universal #1521: Subject-final languages are generally prepositional rather than postpositional.
- Universal #1522: In subject-final languages noun phrase questions can always be formed by putting the question word, e.g., Who?
- Universal #1523: All subject-final languages present morphemically independent subordinate conjunctions which precede a finite
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1526: Subject-final languages do not have relative pronouns.
- Universal #1527: All subject-final languages possess articles. With more than chance frequency subject-final languages have def
- Universal #1528: [In subject-final languages] With much greater than chance frequency numerical expressions precede the nouns t
- Universal #1529: [In subject-final languages] With much greater than chance frequency articles precede the nouns.
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1532: All subject-final languages have passive forms of verbs (ones in which the object of the active verb functions
- Universal #1533: ‘Passive’ is generally marked in the verbal morphology in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1534: Subject-final languages generally do not have overt copulas.
- Universal #1547: In verb-initial languages, where case marking exists, it is normally done by prepositions.
- Universal #1563: Verb-initial languages always have a passive voice and it is almost always marked in the verbal morphology (ra
- Universal #1890: The Cleftability Hierarchy:Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Co
Passive in the world’s languages. In Timothy Shopen (ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume 1: Clause structure, 243-281. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Published also in L.A.U.T., Trier, 1981)
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #306: If a language has passive voice forms derived from intransitive verbs, it has passive voice derived from trans
- Universal #619: If a given language presents NPrel as a pronoun for any position in the hierarchy , then it presents NPrel as
- Universal #622: If a given language can relativize a position low on the Accessibility Hierarchy by gapping then it can genera
- Universal #678: It very rarely happens that prenominal Relative Clauses regularly retain personal pronoun in the NPrel positio
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #824: While both prenominal and postnominal relative clauses may be formed by gapping, gapping is the overwhelmingly
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1121: If a language has passives with agent phrases then it has them without agent phrases.
- Universal #1148: If a language has passives of stative verbs (e.g. 'lack', 'have' etc.) then it has passives of activity verbs.
- Universal #1149: Languages with basic passives commonly have more than one formally distinct passive construction.
- Universal #1150: If a language has any passives it has ones which can be used to cover the perfective range of meaning.No langu
- Universal #1151: If a language has two or more basic passives they are likely to differ semantically with respect to the aspect
- Universal #1152: If a language presents basic passives then it always passivizes ‘give’, ‘show’, etc. in such a way that the de
- Universal #1153: If a language can passivize transitive verb phrases taking sentential objects then it can passivize ones takin
- Universal #1429: If a language has any passives it has ones characterized as basic; moreover, it may have only basic passives.
- Universal #1555: In verb-initial languages, occurrence of personal pronouns in positions relativized is fairly common, though r
- Universal #1595: Clear cases of internal relative clauses are present only in languages whose basic word order is SOV.
Relative clauses. In Timothy Shopen (ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume 2: Complex Constructions, 141-170. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #278: If a language has VOS order, then it has no verbal inflection.
- Universal #306: If a language has passive voice forms derived from intransitive verbs, it has passive voice derived from trans
- Universal #619: If a given language presents NPrel as a pronoun for any position in the hierarchy , then it presents NPrel as
- Universal #622: If a given language can relativize a position low on the Accessibility Hierarchy by gapping then it can genera
- Universal #678: It very rarely happens that prenominal Relative Clauses regularly retain personal pronoun in the NPrel positio
- Universal #823: Prenominal relative clauses never use relative pronouns and only sporadically present as a personal pronoun or
- Universal #824: While both prenominal and postnominal relative clauses may be formed by gapping, gapping is the overwhelmingly
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1121: If a language has passives with agent phrases then it has them without agent phrases.
- Universal #1148: If a language has passives of stative verbs (e.g. 'lack', 'have' etc.) then it has passives of activity verbs.
- Universal #1149: Languages with basic passives commonly have more than one formally distinct passive construction.
- Universal #1150: If a language has any passives it has ones which can be used to cover the perfective range of meaning.No langu
- Universal #1151: If a language has two or more basic passives they are likely to differ semantically with respect to the aspect
- Universal #1152: If a language presents basic passives then it always passivizes ‘give’, ‘show’, etc. in such a way that the de
- Universal #1153: If a language can passivize transitive verb phrases taking sentential objects then it can passivize ones takin
- Universal #1429: If a language has any passives it has ones characterized as basic; moreover, it may have only basic passives.
- Universal #1555: In verb-initial languages, occurrence of personal pronouns in positions relativized is fairly common, though r
- Universal #1595: Clear cases of internal relative clauses are present only in languages whose basic word order is SOV.
Keenan, Edward L. & Bernard Comrie (1977 [1972]). Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar. [Paper read at LSA Annual Meeting, Atlanta] Linguistic Inquiry 8: 63-99.
Data on the noun phrase accessibility hierarchy. Language 55: 333-351
Meaning and Grammar. Cross-Linguistic Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Beyond subject and object. Linguistic Typology 1: 279-346.
Cited in:
- Universal #1907: Pivotless languages favour isolating morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1908: Pure and mixed separatist languages prefer agglutinative morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1909: Cumulative languages prefer fusional morphology or rigid word order.
- Universal #1910: Languages with syntactic relations usually use diathesis changes (voices) that promote and /or demote NPs in t
Modality. In Keith Brown & Jim Miller (eds.), Consice Encyclopedia of Grammatical Categories, 223-229. Amstredam: Elsevier.
On case markers. Lingua 54: 101-133.
Cited in:
- Universal #43: New (not borrowed) case forms enter the nominal morphology through the affixation of adpositions, but such a d
- Universal #197: No set of case marking elements both precede the head noun and participate in agreement.
- Universal #198: No set of case marking elements both precede the head noun and are inseparable from it.
- Universal #199: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are separable from the head noun.
- Universal #200: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are independent morphemes.
- Universal #201: No set of case marking elements are both independent morphemes and inseparable from the head noun.
- Universal #202: No set of case marking elements are both independent morphemes and express subject-object relations.
- Universal #203: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and fail to express subject-object relations.
- Universal #204: No set of case marking elements are both independent morphemes and fail to express concrete relations.
- Universal #205: No set of case marking elements express neither subject-object nor concrete relations.
Universal and particular properties of the Evenki case system. Papers in Linguistics, 16-3/4: 45-74.
Cited in:
- Universal #189: Any case system with over a certain number of cases in it (probably somewhere around seven) will express locat
- Universal #190: If only some locational relations are expressed in a case system, they will always include simple location. Ne
- Universal #191: The most common syncretisms of case relations in a single form include: ablative=prolative; locative=allative;
- Universal #192: A relation that is higher on the hierarchy of centrality (subject-object > local relations; locative > ablativ
Preverbal focusing and type XXIII languages. In In Hammond, Moravcsik, & Wirth (eds.), 177-169.
Cited in:
- Universal #372: In a Verb Phrase, main stress should be to the right of Verb in VO languages and to its left in OV languages [
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #1655: If L is a rigid verb-final language in its basic word order, the rhematic focus of a sentence of L is most lik
- Universal #1669: In SOV languages, the usual place of sentence stress and hence that of rheme is the position immediately prece
- Universal #1670: In SVO languages, the usual place of the focused rheme is after the verb either in an immediately postverbal p
The rise of positional licensing. In Ans van Kemenade & Nigel Vincent (eds.), Parameters of Morphosyntactic Change, 460-494. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fact. In Manfred Bierwisch & Karl E. Heidolph (eds.), Progress in Linguistics, 143-173. The Hague: Mouton.
On clitics as words. Chicago Linguistic Society 15-2 (The Elements: A Parasession on Linguistic Units and Levels): 68-80.
Ocerk obscej teorii èrgativnosti. [Outline of a General Theory of Ergativity.] Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #206: The most important implications of ergativity are the following: the opposition of ergative and absolutive ser
- Universal #225: Difference of case inventories in the different systems:the strong active system is characterized by an absenc
- Universal #258: In ergative languages the subject is characterized by its autonomous position in the sentence:first of all, su
- Universal #259: In ergative and active languages only secondary topicalization, by means of changing the word order in the sen
- Universal #260: In ergative languages personal conjugation is of prefixal or prefix-suffixal nature.
- Universal #261: In ergative languages personal verb affixes are arranged such that the object marker almost always precedes th
- Universal #262: Among the lexical frequentalia of ergativity one can mention: Classes of possessive and affective verbs (verba
- Universal #263: Among the morphological frequentalia of ergativity one may mention: the morphological category of words that a
Tipologija jazykov aktivnogo tipa. [Typology of the Active Type Languages.] Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #216: The most important morphological implications of active languages are as follows: the opposition of the active
- Universal #225: Difference of case inventories in the different systems:the strong active system is characterized by an absenc
- Universal #257: Among the most important morphological implications of the active languages are the following: diathesis of th
- Universal #259: In ergative and active languages only secondary topicalization, by means of changing the word order in the sen
- Universal #265: On the lexical level frequentalia of active languages are as follows: the inactive noun class is often subdivi
- Universal #266: Active languages are characterized by dividing nouns into active (“animate”) and inactive (“inanimate”) classe
K tipologii padeznyx sistem. [On the typology of case systems.] Izvestija Akademii nauk SSSR, Serija literatura i jazyk 2: 127-134.
Principy kontensivnoj tipologii. [Principles of Contensive Typology.] Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #8: If in a language the verb follows the nominal subject and the nominal object as the dominant order, the langua
- Universal #64: In nominative-accusative languages the causee of causative verbs derived from transitive verbs is an oblique o
- Universal #206: The most important implications of ergativity are the following: the opposition of ergative and absolutive ser
- Universal #211: The most important implications of the nominative type are: the single “subject” series of personal affixes in
- Universal #216: The most important morphological implications of active languages are as follows: the opposition of the active
- Universal #225: Difference of case inventories in the different systems:the strong active system is characterized by an absenc
- Universal #226: Languages of the class type have no case paradigm. In rare cases when languages of the active type have an ele
- Universal #257: Among the most important morphological implications of the active languages are the following: diathesis of th
K implikacijam ergativnosti. [On the implications of ergativity.] In Vadim Solncev (ed.), Lingvisticeskaja Tipologija, 49- 55. Moskva: Nauka.
Towards a typology of grammatical reflexive markers as markers of reciprocity. In Kulikov & Vater (eds.) 1998, 185-193.
Adverbial participles, gerunds and absolute constructions in the languages of Europe. In Johannes Bechert, Giuliano Bernini, & Claude Buridant (eds.), Toward a Typology of European Languages, 337- 355. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Intensifiers and Reflexives: A Typological Perspective. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Traci Curl (eds.), Reflexives: Forms and Functions, 41-74. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Nominalizations. London: Routledge.
Cited in:
- Universal #127: No language has syntactic means (dependent marking, head marking, word order) which are exclusively used in AN
- Universal #128: Of the two arguments in transitive ANCs, the one most likely to lose its sentential dependent-marking and head
- Universal #129: Either all the arguments in a transitive ANC retain their sentential dependent-marking or at least one of them
- Universal #130: Head-dependent word order is the same in ANCs and non-derived NPs.
- Universal #131: If an ANC retains its sentential head-marking for some argument, it also retains its sentential dependent-mark
- Universal #132: Languages with the SENT type of ANCs are to a large extent SOV/GN languages.
- Universal #133: It is relatively unusual for languages (in ANCs) to combine sentential dependent-marking for the S with non-se
- Universal #134: Ergative languages favour SENT and SENT-POSS ANCs and disfavour POSS-ACC and NOMN ones.
- Universal #135: Pronominal Subjects and Agents are more likely to genitivize in ANCs than non-pronominal ones.
- Universal #445: Agglutinating languages can be complement-balancing and complement-deranking, while fusional languages are com
Action Nominal Constructions in the Languages of Europe. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/8.
Cited in:
- Universal #127: No language has syntactic means (dependent marking, head marking, word order) which are exclusively used in AN
- Universal #128: Of the two arguments in transitive ANCs, the one most likely to lose its sentential dependent-marking and head
- Universal #129: Either all the arguments in a transitive ANC retain their sentential dependent-marking or at least one of them
- Universal #130: Head-dependent word order is the same in ANCs and non-derived NPs.
- Universal #131: If an ANC retains its sentential head-marking for some argument, it also retains its sentential dependent-mark
- Universal #132: Languages with the SENT type of ANCs are to a large extent SOV/GN languages.
Nekotorye universalnye osobennosti sistem sklonenija licnyx mestoimenij. [Some universal peculiarities of the personal pronouns declension systems.] In Vardul’ (ed.), 50-62. Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #472: If in a language there is an opposition “ergative/nominative” in the declension of independent personal pronou
- Universal #473: If in a language personal and/or demonstrative pronouns of the 3rd person have an opposition “ergative/nominat
- Universal #474: If in a language nouns have the opposition “ergative/nominative”, then with a high plausibility the same oppos
- Universal #475: If in a language there is an opposition ”accusative/nominative” in the declension of nouns, then there is the
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
Nekotorye grammaticeskie universalii v podsistemax vyrazenija subjektno-objektnyx otnnosenij. [Some grammatical universals in subsystems of expression of subject-object relations.] Doctoral dissertation, Moskovskij gosudarstvennyj universitet.
Cited in:
- Universal #166: If a verb agrees in prefix with the direct object, then at least some of the verbs agree with the subject.
- Universal #188: If in a language there is incorporation of the nominal subject into the verb-form, then it has incorporation o
- Universal #303: In the majority of languages the nominal and pronominal subject in the passive voice has the same grammatical
- Universal #304: If a language has an ergative construction or a passive voice in non-past or imperfective tenses, then it also
- Universal #305: If there is a three-member passive construction, then there will be a two-member passive construction, derived
- Universal #306: If a language has passive voice forms derived from intransitive verbs, it has passive voice derived from trans
- Universal #307: In the majority of languages verbal forms of the passive voice morphologically are not more complex than forms
- Universal #308: If active and passive voices differ in verb form, then the corresponding constructions differ from each other
- Universal #309: If active and passive voices differ from each other in nominal actants form, they differ in verb form as well.
- Universal #310: In the overwhelming majority of languages the citation form belongs to the syntactical form of the nominative*
- Universal #311: If some nouns have a syntactic form of indefinitive*, then the citation form coincides exactly with this synta
- Universal #312: If among the syntactic functions of the form there is the subject of intransitive verb of state, then the subj
- Universal #313: If among syntactic functions of a form there is the subject of intransitive verb of action, then the subject o
- Universal #314: In an overwhelming majority of languages all or almost all markers of the syntactic form of the indefinitive*
- Universal #315: In the majority of languages the forms that function as direct objects may also function as adverbial modifier
- Universal #316: If and only if a language has a syntactic form of the subjective*, it has a syntactic form of the accusative*.
- Universal #317: If the indefinite direct object is provided with a syntactic form of accusative*, then the definite direct obj
- Universal #318: If inanimate nominals have the opposition of the syntactic form of the nominative and the syntactic form of th
- Universal #320: If in a language there is a syntactic form of the absolutive, it also has a syntactic form of the ergative.
- Universal #321: If personal pronouns have an opposition of the syntactic forms of nominative and accusative, then this opposit
- Universal #322: If nouns have a syntactic form of the accusative, then at least some of its allomorphs are non-zero.
- Universal #323: If nouns have a syntactic form of the ergative, then at least some of its allomorphs are non-zero.
- Universal #324: If the verb agrees with subject and object and there are forms with the following arrangement of agreement aff
- Universal #325: If the verb agrees with subject and object and there are forms with the following arrangement of agreement aff
- Universal #326: If the verb agrees with subject and object and there are forms with the following arrangement of agreement aff
- Universal #327: If forms of the transitive verb agree in person with a direct object, then at least some of these forms agree
- Universal #328: If transitive verbs agree with their subjects in some grammatical feature, then intransitive verbs will agree
- Universal #329: If a verb agrees with a subject in prefix, then verbs have affixes or clitics which agree with the direct obje
- Universal #330: If transitive verbs have suffix agreement in person with subjects, then at least some of intransitive verbs al
- Universal #331: If intransitive verbs have prefix agreement with subjects in person, then transitive verbs also agree with sub
- Universal #332: If the prefix position is the only possible one for a subject-affix, then the object-affix also occupies this
- Universal #333: If the suffix position is the only possible one for an object-affix, then the subject-affix also occupies this
- Universal #334: If verbal suffixes or enclitics which point out the subject and/or object, under some conditions, move from th
- Universal #335: If a language has forms in which the object is expressed with a confix, then subject can also be expressed by
- Universal #336: If subject of transitive verb is expressed by a confix, then at least one of the parts of such a confix (prefi
- Universal #337: If subject of intransitive verb is expressed by a confix, then at least one of its parts (prefixal or/and suff
- Universal #338: If the verb agrees with subject and object and there are confix-forms such as s-V-s-o, then there are s-V-o fo
- Universal #339: If the verb agrees with subject and object and there are confix-forms such as o-V-s-o, then there are o-V-s fo
- Universal #340: If number is expressed in a prefixal part of a confix, then it is also expressed in its suffixal part.
- Universal #341: If in a conjugation there are confixes, then at least some of them designate subject and/or object in plural.T
- Universal #342: If the dominant position of the subject with respect to the verb depends on their morphological characteristic
- Universal #343: If the dominant position of the object with respect to the verb depends on morphological characteristics of th
- Universal #344: If the subject expressed by an independent personal pronoun usually follows the verb, then the nominal subject
- Universal #345: If the order VS is dominant with transitive verbs, then it will be dominant with intransitive verbs as well.
- Universal #346: If a subject usually follows the nominal predicate, then it also follows the verbal predicate.
- Universal #347: If the order OV is not recessive, the order SV is not recessive as well.
- Universal #348: If VS order is not recessive, neither is VO order.
- Universal #349: If SOV is a dominant order, then OVS is one of the alternative orders.
- Universal #350: If VSO order is one of the alternative orders, then VOS is also one of the alternative orders.
- Universal #351: In a dominant order the object and the verb are juxtaposed, i.e. no subject is placed between them.
- Universal #352: In a dominant order the subject and the object are juxtaposed, i.e. no verb is placed between them.
- Universal #353: In a dominant order not more than one of these principles - i.e. , , - can be violated.
- Universal #354: If in a language the dominant order is OS, then the order VS is also dominant.
- Universal #355: In the languages where the verb agrees with subject and object, if there are forms like s-V-o, and there are n
- Universal #356: In the languages where the verb agrees with subject and object, if there are forms like o-V-s, and there are n
- Universal #357: In the languages where the verb agrees with subject and object, if forms like V-s are the only possible ones,
- Universal #358: If in a dominant word order VS the only possible forms are the forms of the V-s conjugation, then the forms li
- Universal #359: If in a language an incorporated nominal direct object precedes the verb stem, then the autonomous subject pre
- Universal #360: If in a language an incorporated direct object follows the verb stem, then the autonomous subject follows the
- Universal #366: If the verb agrees with the subject and object and there is at least one o-V form, then the dominant order is
Review of Nedjalkov (ed.) 1983. Voprosy Jazykoznanija 1985-5: 128-131.
Cited in:
- Universal #306: If a language has passive voice forms derived from intransitive verbs, it has passive voice derived from trans
- Universal #1297: The presence of possessive resultatives implies subjective resultatives, and this in turn implies objective re
- Universal #1298: If in a language there is dative and/or locative resultative, then there is objective resultative.
Resultatives: Results and discussion. In Nedjalkov (ed.) 1988, 497- 526.
Cited in:
- Universal #322: If nouns have a syntactic form of the accusative, then at least some of its allomorphs are non-zero.
- Universal #1297: The presence of possessive resultatives implies subjective resultatives, and this in turn implies objective re
- Universal #1298: If in a language there is dative and/or locative resultative, then there is objective resultative.
- Universal #1299: Hierarchy of resultative formation:unobservable > irreversible observable > monovalent reversible > bivalent l
- Universal #1300: In languages where both resultatives proper and derived statives have the same form, the probability for a res
Opyt universal’nogo opredelenija issleduemyx sintaksiceskix kategorij. [On the universal definition of the syntactic categories being studied.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 1995-1: 148-153.
Cited in:
- Universal #461: In a language, all (or almost all) verbs with the general meaning ‘to create’ or ‘to destroy’ are transitive v
- Universal #462: For verbs with the general meaning to “destroy” or to “create” (see ):If there is no voice opposition, the NP
- Universal #463: If there is an opposition of active and passive voice, then the NP which has the semantic role of patient of t
- Universal #464: If a language has an opposition of intransitive verbs of action and state, then all (or almost all), verbs mea
- Universal #465: With more than chance frequency, an NP with a semantic role of peregrinator (the one who moves) is considered
- Universal #466: With more than chance frequency, in sentences meaning 'a person/thing belongs to a certain group of persons/th
- Universal #467: There are no differences in the grammatical patterning of subjects of the sentences meaning “a person/thing be
Dravidian personal pronouns. In Bh. Krishnamurti (ed.), Studies in Indian Linguistics: Professor M. B. Emeneau Sastipurti Volume, 189-205. Poona and Annamalainagar: Centers for Advanced Study. Reprinted in Krishnamurti (2001), 76-98.
Gender and number in Proto-Dravidian. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 4: 328-350. Reprinted in Krishnamurti (2001), 133-153.
Cited in:
- Universal #1995: simplification ... in the typologically expected direction ...In the process of category-collapsing, we normal
- Universal #1996: In terms of the above tree model, we may say that gender systems have their genesis in the left branching of t
- Universal #1997: As a "natural" semantic shift alternative (a) [human vs. non-human > human male vs. other] is much less motiva
- Universal #1998: In synchronic as well as diachronic treatments of languages, the pronominal system is much more basic and prim
Comparative Dravidian Linguistics: Current Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1995: simplification ... in the typologically expected direction ...In the process of category-collapsing, we normal
- Universal #1996: In terms of the above tree model, we may say that gender systems have their genesis in the left branching of t
- Universal #1997: As a "natural" semantic shift alternative (a) [human vs. non-human > human male vs. other] is much less motiva
- Universal #1998: In synchronic as well as diachronic treatments of languages, the pronominal system is much more basic and prim
- Universal #1999: Free forms are more easily susceptible to morphological replacement through analogical levelling or otherwise
Typology of Verbal Categories: Papers Presented to Vladimir Nedjalkov on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Relative clauses and conjunctions. Linguistic Inquiry 5: 117-136.
Èrgativnost’ i stadial’nost’ v jazyke. [Ergativity and stadiality in language.] Izvestija Akademii nauk SSSR. Serija Literatura i jazyk 5: 387-394.
Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1855: Nonlaterals (trills or flaps) have the property of lowering a preceding vowel.
- Universal #1861: The consonantality of a neighboring sound has the effect of changing a nontrill (flap or tap) into a trill whe
- Universal #1862: A trill is found to occur in a stressed position, to denote emphasis, or in slow speech. As against this, a fl
- Universal #1863: A retroflexed flap (out-flap) and also other retroflexed consonants have a retroflexing or centralizing influe
- Universal #1864: The alveolar and retroflex stops generally tend to become taps and flaps intervocalically.
Toward a unified theory of agreement. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 67-88.
Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #46: When objects are marked differently depending on whether or not they are definite, or on whether or not they a
- Universal #149: The number of inflectional classes of adjectives is never larger than the number of inflectional classes of no
- Universal #322: If nouns have a syntactic form of the accusative, then at least some of its allomorphs are non-zero.
- Universal #412: Aspirated voiceless consonants (especially obstruents) occur more frequently then aspirated voiced ones (espec
- Universal #461: In a language, all (or almost all) verbs with the general meaning ‘to create’ or ‘to destroy’ are transitive v
- Universal #769: There is a highly significant tendency for languages to have at least one primary fricative.
- Universal #770: If a language has only one primary fricative its primary allophone is most likely to be /s/.
- Universal #771: If a language has only two primary fricatives, the second one is most likely to be /f/.
- Universal #772: In a given language the number of voiceless primary fricatives is highly likely to be greater than the number
- Universal #773: The presence of a voiced primary fricative in a language is highly likely to imply the presence of its voicele
- Universal #776: No language has secondary fricatives unless it also has primary fricatives.
- Universal #777: The number of secondary fricatives in a given language is never greater than that of primary fricatives.
- Universal #780: Languages usually have at least three primary oral stops.
- Universal #781: If a language has only three primary oral stops, their primary allophones are most likely to be /p t k/.
- Universal #782: If a language has an affricated stop, it is most likely that it also has (at least) three plain stops.
- Universal #783:
- Universal #784: In a given language the number of voiceless primary oral stops is nearly always greater than the number of voi
- Universal #788: A language is highly unlikely to have secondary oral stops unless it also has primary oral stops.
- Universal #797: If a language has only one place of articulation for a given type of consonant it is most likely to be the alv
- Universal #798: There is a very highly significant tendency for languages to have more voiceless obstruents than voiced ones.
- Universal #834: Languages with two or more liquids are most likely to have at least one lateral, and a lateral/non-lateral con
- Universal #835: A language with one or more laterals has a voiced lateral approximant.
- Universal #836: Languages with two or more laterals may contrast them either in manner or voice, but not both (e.g. a language
- Universal #837: Languages with two or more r-types are unlikely to restrict the contrast to place alone.
- Universal #838: A liquid with both lateral and non-lateral allophones is the likeliest candidate for the single liquid in a sy
- Universal #888: There are no languages with rounded front vowels but without rounded back vowels.
- Universal #913: If speech act constructions – constructions which indicate some feature of an illocutionary act – in certain s
- Universal #918: Hierarchy of incorporability:externally modifiable NP > backgrounded NP > demoted NP > nonreferential noun.If
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #984: If a language has a separative comparative, then it is SOV.
- Universal #985: If a language has an allative comparative, then it is VSO.
- Universal #986: If a language has a locative comparative, then it is either SOV or VSO.
- Universal #987: If a language has an exceed comparative, then it is SVO.
- Universal #988: Languages with a separative comparative are languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #989: Languages with an allative comparative are languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #990: Languages with a locative comparative are languages with absolute simultaneous deranking and total identity de
- Universal #991: Languages with an adverbial comparative are languages with absolute deranking and total identity deletion.
- Universal #992: Languages with an exceed comparative are languages with conditional deranking and limited identity deletion.
- Universal #993: Languages with a conjoined comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and no identi
- Universal #994: Languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking typically prefer SOV word order.
- Universal #995: Languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking typically prefer VSO word order.
- Universal #996: Languages with conditional deranking typically prefer SVO word order.
- Universal #997: Languages with absolute consecutive deranking have either SOV or VSO .
- Universal #998: Languages with a particle comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and with total
- Universal #1191: In all cultures/languages, there is a hierarchy of terms referring to the animal and plant kingdoms (and perha
- Universal #1212: If a language incorporates nouns of only one semantic case, they will be patients of transitive verbs – whethe
- Universal #1239: Hierarchy of expletives:argumentless passives and unaccusatives > expletive of displaced NPs > expletives of d
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1274: If there is one or more distinctions or remoteness in a tense-aspect system, and reference can be made to obje
- Universal #1275: Categories which can be used as a ‘perfect of result’ (i.e. to say that something has happened that has a resu
- Universal #1276: Categories which are used like the English pluperfect will tend to be nondistinct from remote past.
- Universal #1277: If narrative and non-narrative contexts differ with respect to the marking of temporal distance, it will be th
- Universal #1288: If nasality co-occurs in the neighborhood of a vowel or is inherent in the vowel itself of a given height m, t
- Universal #1343: An element which serves as a semantic link between two other elements is likely to occur in linear order betwe
- Universal #1344: If a language has voiced obstruents word-finally, then it also has voiceless obstruents word-finally.
- Universal #1421: If there are separate forms for narrative and non-narrative past contexts, the non-narrative forms tend to be
- Universal #1422: It is almost always possible to use the least marked indicative verb from in a narrative context.
- Universal #1426: If there are voiceless obstruents word-finally, then there are sonorant consonants word-finally.
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1494: Objects that qualify as generic, non-referential, indefinite, inanimate/non-human, semantically dependent, pra
- Universal #1498: Non-configurational languages are agglutinative, but not vice versa.
- Universal #1639: IF there is polysynthesis (essentially, noun incorporation and bound agreement/cross-reference markers for sub
- Universal #1651: For dependent-marking patterns, clause marking type implies relativization type; while for the head-marking pa
- Universal #1652: Clause-affecting relativization inherently favours dependent-marking and disfavours head-marking.
- Universal #1653: The great majority of pronominalization strategies, regardless of language type, favour dependent-marking patt
- Universal #1743: On the NP analysis pronouns are arguably anomalous in lacking an overt noun head – unless pronouns are taken t
- Universal #1803: There is a tendency for obstruents to be devoiced more often finally then initially.
- Universal #1804: There is a tendency for consonants to front initially and back finally.
- Universal #1805: Syllables and words are more likely to contain obstruents syllable and word-initially, and sonorants finally.
- Universal #1806: Nasals tend to endure word-finally after obstruents have been lost.
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
- Universal #1907: Pivotless languages favour isolating morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1908: Pure and mixed separatist languages prefer agglutinative morphology and free word order.
- Universal #1909: Cumulative languages prefer fusional morphology or rigid word order.
- Universal #1918: In addition to DAT/BEN objects, other object cases lower on the topicality hierarchy may also be "promoted" to
- Universal #1919: VO languages tend to have an unmarked accusative.
- Universal #1920: OV languages, on the whole, tend to have a marked accusative.
- Universal #2010: [When the controller consists of conjoined NPs and they have features which require resolution,] in person res
Actance variation and categories of the object. In Frans Plank (ed.), Objects: Towards a Theory of Grammatical Relations, 269-292. London: Academic Press.
Formes et fonctions du passif et de l’antipassif. Actances 2: 7-57.
Deux échelles de transitivité. Actances 2: 59-67.
Researches on Actancy. Actances 6: 3-58.
Typological Research on Actancy: The Paris RIVALC Group. In Shibatani & Bynon (eds.) 1995, 167-213.
Cited in:
- Universal #46: When objects are marked differently depending on whether or not they are definite, or on whether or not they a
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #904: The more firmly individuated (definite, human, etc.) the agent and the object and/or the more complete (semant
Actancy. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #46: When objects are marked differently depending on whether or not they are definite, or on whether or not they a
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #899: There is an affinity between aspect and object individuation, insofar as the imperfective (progressive, freque
- Universal #900: Whenever there is an opposition between a subjective and an objective conjugation, the former will be used wit
- Universal #901: The coalescence of the object generally goes hand in hand with its non-referentiality and the aspectual nuance
- Universal #902: Whenever indirect constructions are in opposition with direct constructions, the former will be found with pro
- Universal #903: The antipassive is correlative with the imperfective aspect and low-level object individuation.Whenever antipa
- Universal #904: The more firmly individuated (definite, human, etc.) the agent and the object and/or the more complete (semant
Suprasegmentals. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Isomorphismus in sprachlichen Zeiten. In Hansjakob Seiler (ed.), Linguistic Workshop II: 98-123. München: Fink.
Cited in:
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
Universal and typological aspects of agreement. In Hansjakob Seiler & Franz J. Stachowiak (eds.), Apprehension: Das sprachliche Erfassen von Gegenständen, Volume 2, 201-267. Tübingen: Narr.
On the function of agreement. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 55-66.
Cited in:
- Universal #44:
- Universal #50: In agreement of adnominal modifiers with their heads (NP internal agreement), the agreement features may inclu
- Universal #51: In agreement of governors (verbs, adpositions, possessum noun phrases) with dependent NPs (NP external agreeme
- Universal #53: In the construction of possessive attribution, only the possessor may agree in case with the possessum, while
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #441: In SOV languages the negation is commonly placed before or after the verb.
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
The genesis of auxiliaries in Yucatec Maya. In André Crochetiere, Jean Claude Boulanger, & Conrad Ouellon (eds.), Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of Linguists, Volume 2, 313-316. Saint-Foy: PU Laval.
Cited in:
- Universal #108: In consistent OV languages, interrogative markers follow verbs, occupying final position in the sentence.
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #1611: If the modals/auxiliaries of a language do not inflect for person, then it does not have an infinitive.
Noun. In Geert Booij et al. (eds.), Morphology: An International Handbook. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #108: In consistent OV languages, interrogative markers follow verbs, occupying final position in the sentence.
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1945: If a language has denominal derivation, it has nominal derivation (=derivation of something else to nouns).
- Universal #1946: The use of all other processes of nominal derivation and inflection (namely internal modification, suprasegmen
On the rise of SOV patterns in New High German. In Klaus G. Schweisthal (ed.), Grammatik, Kybernetik, Kommunikation: Festschrift für A. Hoppe, 19-24. Bonn: Dümmler.
Descriptive Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Random House.
A structural principle of languages and its implications. Language 49: 47-66.
Cited in:
- Universal #11: Consistent OV languages tend to be agglutinative in their morphology.
- Universal #13: Consistent VO languages tend to be inflectional in their morphology.
- Universal #15: Verbal modifiers like those for negation, causation, and reflexive or reciprocal are placed after verb roots i
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #108: In consistent OV languages, interrogative markers follow verbs, occupying final position in the sentence.
- Universal #196: OV languages tend to have simple syllable structure.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #441: In SOV languages the negation is commonly placed before or after the verb.
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1342: The more marked the position in which a word appears, the stronger the tendency for this word to present a mar
Proto-Indo-European Syntax. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
A shift in the syntactic type of early North Germanic and its phonological effects. In John Weinstock (ed.), The Nordic Languages and Linguistic Theory, Volume 3, 110-115. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1317: There is a tendency that, in postspecifying languages (i.e., specified-specifier, head-modifier), the order in
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
The great underlying ground-plans. In Lehmann (ed.) 1978, 3-55.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1317: There is a tendency that, in postspecifying languages (i.e., specified-specifier, head-modifier), the order in
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
English: A characteristic SVO language. In Lehmann (ed.) 1978, 169-222.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1317: There is a tendency that, in postspecifying languages (i.e., specified-specifier, head-modifier), the order in
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
Conclusions: The profound unity underlying languages. In Lehmann (ed.) 1978, 395-432.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1317: There is a tendency that, in postspecifying languages (i.e., specified-specifier, head-modifier), the order in
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
Syntactic Typology: Studies in the Phenomenology of Language. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #107: Nominal modifiers (such as relative, adjectival, and attributive expressions) follow nouns in VO languages and
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #1146: Passivization is prominent in SVO languages, but not at all in OV languages.
- Universal #1317: There is a tendency that, in postspecifying languages (i.e., specified-specifier, head-modifier), the order in
- Universal #1524: In possessive constructions subject-final languages always present full noun phrase possessors after the head
- Universal #1525: In subject-final languages relative clauses always present the head noun to the left of the restricting clause
- Universal #1530: Negative elements precede the verb in subject-final languages.
- Universal #1531: A causative element precedes the root of the causativized verb in subject-final languages.
Relational classifiers. Lingua 60: 147-176.
Why and how does vowel nasalization take place? Papers in Linguistics 2: 179-226.
Remarks on universals in phonology. In Maurice Gross (ed.), Natural Languages, Proceedings of the First International Conference, 13-50. The Hague: Mouton.
Wahr neben falsch: Duale Operatoren als die Quantoren natürlicher Sprache. Tübingen: Niemeyer
Sein und Zeit, Sein und Wahrheit in der Form der Sprache. Lexis 2: 104-143.
Cited in:
Allgemein-grammatische Ordnungsgesetze. Zeitschrift für Phonetik und Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft 3: 141-150.
Cited in:
Historical Change in Serial Verb Constructions. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #138: If a language has de-verbal case markers at all, it is likely to have a de-verbal Locative case marker.
- Universal #1502: A hierarchy of grammaticalization from verb to complementizer to adverbial conjunction.If a language uses the
- Universal #1503: Languages with serial verb constructions tend to have VO ordering with verb serialization andone object per ve
The accessibility hierarchy and clefting. In Michael Bernstein (ed.), ESCOL ’92: Proceedings of the 9th Eastern States Conference on Linguistics. 184-195. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #185: If there are analogical changes in the inflectional paradigms of place names, non-local cases (including the n
- Universal #1890: The Cleftability Hierarchy:Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Co
- Universal #1891: The Cleftability Hierarchy:Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Co
- Universal #1892: The Cleftability Hierarchy:Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Co
Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Universals of tone. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 335-365.
Cited in:
- Universal #717: A language may contrast up to five levels of tone, but no more.
- Universal #718: A larger number of tone levels occupy a larger pitch range than a smaller number.
- Universal #719: Systems in which high tones are marked are more frequent than systems in which low tones are marked.
- Universal #720: Phonetically Central tones are unmarked, Extreme tones are highly marked.
- Universal #722: Languages which permit a sequence of unlike tones on a word or morpheme also permit like tones on a word or mo
- Universal #723: A language which permits successive shifts of tone level in opposite directions within a word permits words wi
- Universal #724: If a language has contour tones, it also has level tones.
- Universal #725: A language with complex contours also has simplex contours.
- Universal #726: Morphemes subject to a rule which assigns a tone opposite to an adjacent tone are much more frequently encount
- Universal #727: A descending pitch ramp follows a voiceless obstruent; a rising pitch ramp follows a voiced obstruent.
- Universal #729: A low (open) vowel has a lower pitch than a high (close) vowel, other things being equal.
- Universal #730: Vowels on low tones are longer than those on high tones, other things being equal.
- Universal #731: Vowels on rising tones are longer than those on falling tones, other things being equal.
- Universal #732: When a marked phonation type is restricted in distribution to certain tones, those tones are in the highest or
- Rara #125: when tone is privative, low tone as marked (hence phonologically active) relative to (phonologically inactive)
- Rara #128: as many as five phonological tone levels, plus two falling and one rising contour tone
Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #834: Languages with two or more liquids are most likely to have at least one lateral, and a lateral/non-lateral con
- Universal #835: A language with one or more laterals has a voiced lateral approximant.
- Universal #836: Languages with two or more laterals may contrast them either in manner or voice, but not both (e.g. a language
- Universal #837: Languages with two or more r-types are unlikely to restrict the contrast to place alone.
- Universal #838: A liquid with both lateral and non-lateral allophones is the likeliest candidate for the single liquid in a sy
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
Universal grammar and the typology of ergative languages. In Artemis Alexiadou & T. Allan Hall (eds.), Studies on Universal Grammar and Typological Variation, 35-57. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
(1981): Language Typology. Cross-linguistic Studies in Syntax. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Tendances générales des changements analogiques. Lingua 7: 298-325, 387-420.
Cited in:
- Universal #185: If there are analogical changes in the inflectional paradigms of place names, non-local cases (including the n
- Universal #973: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, then the number of synonymous morphemes (stem
- Universal #974: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, long morphemes (stems and affixes) or words a
- Universal #975: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, short morphemes (stems and affixes) or words
- Universal #978: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, the forms (stems and affixes) of indicative f
- Universal #979: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, the forms (stems and affixes) of local cases
- Universal #980: If there are analogical changes in their inflectional paradigms, the forms of non-local cases of common nouns
Une tendance générale dans le développement de la flexion des noms de personnes. Revue Internationale d’Onomastique 12: 125-136.
Tendances générales du développement morphologique. Lingua 12: 19-38.
Fréquence et évolution. Statistique et analyse linguistique. Colloque de Strasbourg 1964, 99-103. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
Manczak, Witold (1978 [1980])). Les lois du développement analogique. Linguistics 205: 53-60. Translated in Jacek Fisiak (ed.), Historical Morphology. 283-288. The Hague: Mouton.
Possessive adnominal modifiers. In Johannes Bechert, Giuliano Bernini, & Claude Buridand (eds.), Toward a Typology of European Languages, 63-111. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Parameters, binding theory, and learnability. Linguistic Inquiry 18: 413-444.
Noun classes and agreement systems in Kru: A historical approach. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 323-342.
Cited in:
- Universal #104: When noun-phrase internal agreement (in class) is lost, it tends to disappear first on numerals, then on adjec
- Universal #105: Adjectives tend to lose class agreement before number agreement.
- Universal #106: Agreement loss, at least with class and number as agreement features, diffuses lexically, at least as far as a
Noun-incorporation in universal grammar. Chicago Linguistic Society 11: 383-389.
Cited in:
- Universal #1213: If a language incorporates indirect objects, then it also incorporates non-agental subjects and direct objects
- Universal #1214: After incorporation of the noun the verb becomes intransitive (if it was not already so). From this follows th
- Universal #1492: In ditransitive constructions, the theme/direct object may incorporate, but the goal/indirect object may not.
- Universal #1495: As a consequence of the tendency of incorporated nouns to be generic in meaning, they do not seem to be able t
- Universal #1496: Incorporated nouns attach to the right of the verb stem in verb-initial languages.
- Universal #1497: Incorporated nouns attach to the left of the verb stem in not-verb-initial languages.
Èconomie des changements phonétiques. Bern: A. Francke.
Defining a Linguistic Area: South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tone, intonation, and sound symbolism in Lahu: Loading the syllable canon. In Hinton, Nichols, & Ohala (eds.) 1994, 115-129.
A Cross-linguistic correlation between word order and case-marking. Doctoral dissertation, [WHERE?]. Ann-Arbor: University Microfilms International.
A typologically based principle of linearization. Language 60: 281-285.
Die Entstehung flektierender Sprachen. Berlin: Reimer.
Cited in:
- Universal #389: Languages without inflectional gender are agglutinating, and vice versa.
- Universal #589: If a language is of the agglutinative type, then it cannot have grammatical gender.
- Universal #590: ... eine höchst bemerkenswerte Erscheinung, die nur in flektierenden Sprachen anzutreffen ist, das ist das gra
- Universal #1673: Wir haben also in der Mannigfaltigkeit der Pluralbildung ein gutes Kennzeichen der flektierenden Sprachen gefu
- Universal #1676: Hier [d.h. in der Veränderlichkeit des Wortstammes] liegt also ein wirkliches Unterscheidungsmerkmal der flekt
- Universal #1959: Wo nun der Druckakzent eine feste Stelle erhält, hat er oft zur Folge, daß die Vokale der nichtbetonten Silben
- Universal #1960: Die Gründe, warum die eine Art der Sprache die alte Sprechweise, die unter der Herrschaft des musikalischen To
- Universal #1961: ... musikalische[r] Ton ... kann deshalb nur mit mit Vokalen und stimmhaften Konsonanten verbunden werden. Der
- Universal #1962: In isolierenden Sprachen werden alle Wurzeln gleichwertig behandelt. Man kann es der Wurzel nicht einmal anseh
Theoretical Problems of Typology and the Northern Eurasian Languages, 65-73. Amsterdam: Grüner.
Cited in:
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #1014: There is no language in which there are more labials or velars than dentals.
- Universal #1015: Peripheral affricates imply medial affricates.
- Universal #1016: The existence of diffuse medial affricates and compact medial fricatives imply compact medial affricates.
Saerto-kartveluri dziri st’rukt’uruli da t’ip’ologiuri tvalsazrisit. [The Proto-Kartvelian root in structural and typological aspects.] Doctoral dissertation, Tbilisi State University.
Number names in four languages of Mexico. In Corstius Brandt (ed.), Grammars for Number Names, 91-102. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Linguarum orientalium turcicæ, arabicæ, persicæ institutiones seu Grammatica turcica … . Windobonæ: Operâ, typis & sumptibus Francisci à Mesgnien Meninski. (Re-edited as Institutiones linguae Turcicae. Windobonae: Kollar, 1756.)
The evolution of noun incorporation. Language 60: 847-94.
Cited in:
- Universal #918: Hierarchy of incorporability:externally modifiable NP > backgrounded NP > demoted NP > nonreferential noun.If
- Universal #1212: If a language incorporates nouns of only one semantic case, they will be patients of transitive verbs – whethe
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1639: IF there is polysynthesis (essentially, noun incorporation and bound agreement/cross-reference markers for sub
How to avoid subordination. Berkeley Linguistics Society 10: 493-509.
Cited in:
- Universal #918: Hierarchy of incorporability:externally modifiable NP > backgrounded NP > demoted NP > nonreferential noun.If
- Universal #1212: If a language incorporates nouns of only one semantic case, they will be patients of transitive verbs – whethe
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1639: IF there is polysynthesis (essentially, noun incorporation and bound agreement/cross-reference markers for sub
The subtle significance of the locus of morphologization. International Journal of American Linguistics 55: 265-282.
Determination. Working Papers on Language Universals 1: 63-98a.
Cited in:
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #965: ... definite articles are often synchronically identical with or clearly related to demonstratives which are a
- Universal #1120: All personal pronouns are definite.
- Universal #1156: For any given noun phrase, numerability implies definitizability, and definitizability implies pronominalizabi
- Universal #1157: For any language, preposed relative clause implies postposed relative clause.
- Universal #1158: Occurrence of a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause in cases where the identical element is subject or o
- Universal #1159: For any language, an obligatorily definite identical noun phrase in the preposed main sentences of a relative
- Universal #1160: If the definiteness of the head determines the shape of the relative pronoun, the pronoun co-occurring with th
- Universal #1161: No language has been found where definiteness agreement between the head and the relative clause would not hav
- Universal #1162: If the indefinite article is derived from the cardinal 'one', non-numerable nouns cannot take indefinite artic
- Universal #1163: Indefinite articles are generally short – that is, they never have more than two syllables.
- Universal #1164: Any noun that is pronominalizable may take a definite article, but of these, only those that are numerable may
- Universal #1167: If a language has a grammaticalized indefinite article, it is likely to also have a definite article, while th
- Universal #1168: ... vocatives do not undergo definitization in any language investigated. Most vocatives take no article at al
- Universal #1169: Whenever order correlates with definiteness, the definite element tends to be placed at the beginning of the s
- Universal #1170: For any particular language, definiteness contrast obligatorily expressed for any noun phrase implies such con
- Universal #1171: Markers on the verb or adjective are never the sole markers of definiteness, in any given context (except perh
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
Object-verb agreement. Working Papers on Language Universals 15: 25-140.
Cited in:
- Universal #84: If in a language the verb agrees with anything, it agrees with some or all subjects.
- Universal #85: The non-null set of agreeing non-subjects of any language includes some or all direct objects; or in other wor
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #89: Markers of agreement with direct objects are always formally distinct from markers of agreement with subjects,
- Universal #90: The object agreement marker in all languages where it exists bears a significant relationship to some pronouns
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
On the case marking of objects. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978 ,Volume 4, 249-290.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #122: If in a language the same verbal meaning is expressible either through a construction where a complement of th
- Universal #123: In some languages objects [sic] — whether objects of transitive or subjects of intransitive sentences — may be
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #418: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with a constituent distinct from the intra
- Universal #419: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with an adverbial constituent and which wo
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #421: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both animate and inanimate members, the verb w
- Universal #422: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both topical and non-topical members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #425: There is no language where, given a constituent class some members of which are immediate constituents of the
- Universal #426: The presence of plural in the nouns of a particular language always implies its presence in some pronouns, thi
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #431: The singular-plural distinction is universal in free personal pronouns in the 1st person.
- Universal #432: The following correlation holds: overt marking of plurality in non-human (or inanimate) noun phrases implies t
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #602: In all languages where causative verbs take complement noun phrases that have an accusative case-marker, the r
- Universal #603: If in a language there are two classes of sentences such that there is ergative-type verb agreement in one but
- Universal #604: If there is agreement between the verb and some of its noun phrase complements with respect to “affectedness”
- Universal #605: No accusative language has only ergative-type verb agreement in person or number or gender.
- Universal #606: If in a language the definiteness of a class of noun phrases is an order-significant property, this class will
- Universal #608: If a language has a derivational morpheme whose distributional characterization makes reference to objects, it
- Universal #609: If there are two verb-lexicalization rules in a language such that the two meaning characterization contrast o
- Universal #660: There is no reduplication pattern where the constituent to be reduplicated may be freely chosen from among the
- Universal #661: There is no reduplication pattern where the number of repetitions is freely chosen from the set of all numbers
- Universal #662: There is no reduplication pattern which would not involve reference to lexical identity.
- Universal #663: There is no reduplication pattern that would involve reference to phonological properties other than syllable
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1896: No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the
- Universal #1897: No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this
- Universal #1898: A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
- Universal #1901: Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that
Agreement. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 4, 331-374.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #122: If in a language the same verbal meaning is expressible either through a construction where a complement of th
- Universal #123: In some languages objects [sic] — whether objects of transitive or subjects of intransitive sentences — may be
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #418: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with a constituent distinct from the intra
- Universal #419: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with an adverbial constituent and which wo
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #421: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both animate and inanimate members, the verb w
- Universal #422: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both topical and non-topical members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #425: There is no language where, given a constituent class some members of which are immediate constituents of the
- Universal #426: The presence of plural in the nouns of a particular language always implies its presence in some pronouns, thi
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #431: The singular-plural distinction is universal in free personal pronouns in the 1st person.
- Universal #432: The following correlation holds: overt marking of plurality in non-human (or inanimate) noun phrases implies t
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #602: In all languages where causative verbs take complement noun phrases that have an accusative case-marker, the r
- Universal #603: If in a language there are two classes of sentences such that there is ergative-type verb agreement in one but
- Universal #604: If there is agreement between the verb and some of its noun phrase complements with respect to “affectedness”
- Universal #605: No accusative language has only ergative-type verb agreement in person or number or gender.
- Universal #606: If in a language the definiteness of a class of noun phrases is an order-significant property, this class will
- Universal #608: If a language has a derivational morpheme whose distributional characterization makes reference to objects, it
- Universal #609: If there are two verb-lexicalization rules in a language such that the two meaning characterization contrast o
- Universal #660: There is no reduplication pattern where the constituent to be reduplicated may be freely chosen from among the
- Universal #661: There is no reduplication pattern where the number of repetitions is freely chosen from the set of all numbers
- Universal #662: There is no reduplication pattern which would not involve reference to lexical identity.
- Universal #663: There is no reduplication pattern that would involve reference to phonological properties other than syllable
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1896: No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the
- Universal #1897: No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this
- Universal #1898: A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
- Universal #1901: Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that
Reduplicative constructions. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 297-334.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #122: If in a language the same verbal meaning is expressible either through a construction where a complement of th
- Universal #123: In some languages objects [sic] — whether objects of transitive or subjects of intransitive sentences — may be
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #418: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with a constituent distinct from the intra
- Universal #419: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with an adverbial constituent and which wo
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #421: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both animate and inanimate members, the verb w
- Universal #422: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both topical and non-topical members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #425: There is no language where, given a constituent class some members of which are immediate constituents of the
- Universal #426: The presence of plural in the nouns of a particular language always implies its presence in some pronouns, thi
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #431: The singular-plural distinction is universal in free personal pronouns in the 1st person.
- Universal #432: The following correlation holds: overt marking of plurality in non-human (or inanimate) noun phrases implies t
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #602: In all languages where causative verbs take complement noun phrases that have an accusative case-marker, the r
- Universal #603: If in a language there are two classes of sentences such that there is ergative-type verb agreement in one but
- Universal #604: If there is agreement between the verb and some of its noun phrase complements with respect to “affectedness”
- Universal #605: No accusative language has only ergative-type verb agreement in person or number or gender.
- Universal #606: If in a language the definiteness of a class of noun phrases is an order-significant property, this class will
- Universal #608: If a language has a derivational morpheme whose distributional characterization makes reference to objects, it
- Universal #609: If there are two verb-lexicalization rules in a language such that the two meaning characterization contrast o
- Universal #660: There is no reduplication pattern where the constituent to be reduplicated may be freely chosen from among the
- Universal #661: There is no reduplication pattern where the number of repetitions is freely chosen from the set of all numbers
- Universal #662: There is no reduplication pattern which would not involve reference to lexical identity.
- Universal #663: There is no reduplication pattern that would involve reference to phonological properties other than syllable
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1896: No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the
- Universal #1897: No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this
- Universal #1898: A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
- Universal #1901: Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that
On the distribution of ergative and accusative patterns. Lingua 45: 233-279.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #122: If in a language the same verbal meaning is expressible either through a construction where a complement of th
- Universal #123: In some languages objects [sic] — whether objects of transitive or subjects of intransitive sentences — may be
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #418: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with a constituent distinct from the intra
- Universal #419: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with an adverbial constituent and which wo
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #421: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both animate and inanimate members, the verb w
- Universal #422: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both topical and non-topical members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #425: There is no language where, given a constituent class some members of which are immediate constituents of the
- Universal #426: The presence of plural in the nouns of a particular language always implies its presence in some pronouns, thi
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #431: The singular-plural distinction is universal in free personal pronouns in the 1st person.
- Universal #432: The following correlation holds: overt marking of plurality in non-human (or inanimate) noun phrases implies t
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #602: In all languages where causative verbs take complement noun phrases that have an accusative case-marker, the r
- Universal #603: If in a language there are two classes of sentences such that there is ergative-type verb agreement in one but
- Universal #604: If there is agreement between the verb and some of its noun phrase complements with respect to “affectedness”
- Universal #605: No accusative language has only ergative-type verb agreement in person or number or gender.
- Universal #606: If in a language the definiteness of a class of noun phrases is an order-significant property, this class will
- Universal #608: If a language has a derivational morpheme whose distributional characterization makes reference to objects, it
- Universal #609: If there are two verb-lexicalization rules in a language such that the two meaning characterization contrast o
- Universal #660: There is no reduplication pattern where the constituent to be reduplicated may be freely chosen from among the
- Universal #661: There is no reduplication pattern where the number of repetitions is freely chosen from the set of all numbers
- Universal #662: There is no reduplication pattern which would not involve reference to lexical identity.
- Universal #663: There is no reduplication pattern that would involve reference to phonological properties other than syllable
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1896: No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the
- Universal #1897: No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this
- Universal #1898: A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
- Universal #1901: Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that
Universals of language contact. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 1, 93-122.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #86: If in a language the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, it agrees with some or
- Universal #122: If in a language the same verbal meaning is expressible either through a construction where a complement of th
- Universal #123: In some languages objects [sic] — whether objects of transitive or subjects of intransitive sentences — may be
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #418: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with a constituent distinct from the intra
- Universal #419: There is no language which includes sentences where the verb agrees with an adverbial constituent and which wo
- Universal #420: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both definite and indefinite members, the verb
- Universal #421: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both animate and inanimate members, the verb w
- Universal #422: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both topical and non-topical members, the verb
- Universal #423: There is no language where, given a constituent class including both members that precede the verb and also me
- Universal #425: There is no language where, given a constituent class some members of which are immediate constituents of the
- Universal #426: The presence of plural in the nouns of a particular language always implies its presence in some pronouns, thi
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #428: If there is any set of agreeing constituent types whose members show agreement in terms of semantically interp
- Universal #429: All types of predicate constituents do not agree alike with polite plural pronoun subjects; if the referent of
- Universal #430: If in a particular language gender distinctions appear, it will be the 3rd person.
- Universal #431: The singular-plural distinction is universal in free personal pronouns in the 1st person.
- Universal #432: The following correlation holds: overt marking of plurality in non-human (or inanimate) noun phrases implies t
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #602: In all languages where causative verbs take complement noun phrases that have an accusative case-marker, the r
- Universal #603: If in a language there are two classes of sentences such that there is ergative-type verb agreement in one but
- Universal #604: If there is agreement between the verb and some of its noun phrase complements with respect to “affectedness”
- Universal #605: No accusative language has only ergative-type verb agreement in person or number or gender.
- Universal #606: If in a language the definiteness of a class of noun phrases is an order-significant property, this class will
- Universal #608: If a language has a derivational morpheme whose distributional characterization makes reference to objects, it
- Universal #609: If there are two verb-lexicalization rules in a language such that the two meaning characterization contrast o
- Universal #660: There is no reduplication pattern where the constituent to be reduplicated may be freely chosen from among the
- Universal #661: There is no reduplication pattern where the number of repetitions is freely chosen from the set of all numbers
- Universal #662: There is no reduplication pattern which would not involve reference to lexical identity.
- Universal #663: There is no reduplication pattern that would involve reference to phonological properties other than syllable
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
- Universal #1895: No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexic
- Universal #1896: No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the
- Universal #1897: No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this
- Universal #1898: A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
- Universal #1901: Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that
Some crosslinguistic generalizations about motivated symbolism. In Brettschneider & Lehmann (eds.) 1980, 23-37.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #394: If a language shows person-number marking on adpositions, it also shows the same on nouns; if it shows person-
- Universal #472: If in a language there is an opposition “ergative/nominative” in the declension of independent personal pronou
- Universal #473: If in a language personal and/or demonstrative pronouns of the 3rd person have an opposition “ergative/nominat
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
- Universal #587: If degree of complexity in phonetic form is systematically correlated with degree of complexity in meaning, th
- Universal #588: Increased volume of sound is systematically correlated with increased emphasis in all languages.
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
- Universal #592: All languages include utterance pairs where inclusion relations between semantic representations are parallele
- Universal #593: All languages include some utterances where the grouping of some semantic features in syntactic surface struct
- Universal #594: The repetition of syntactic constituents is used in all languages to express continuity of action (e.g. he wal
- Universal #595: In all languages, some instances of adjacency relations among syntactic constituents symbolize semantic relate
- Universal #596: In all languages, there are some utterances where simultaneity of morphemes symbolizes semantic relatedness. (
- Universal #597: If in a language the temporal order of syntactic constituents that describe events symbolizes anything about t
- Universal #598: The reversal of syntactic constituent order is never systematically iconic, i. e. signaling the reversal of me
- Universal #1899: No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed fro a language unless at least one deriva
- Universal #1900: A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) c
Agreement and markedness. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 89-106.
Cited in:
- Universal #14: If verbs agree with objects, they are likelier to do so with case marked than case-less ones. ORThere is no la
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #103: Agreement should preferably occur in marked rather than unmarked construction types, e. g. with appositive rat
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #579: The Agreement HierarchyIf agreement features are optionally referential-semantic or syntactic, the likelihood
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1410: When the sole dual pronoun is a first person inclusive, there is almost always a distinction in the plural bet
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1876: It holds as a strong statistical implication that whenever there is a 1st person exclusive dual there is also
Government. In Joachim Jacobs, Armin von Stechow, Wolfgang Sternefeld, & Theo Vennemann (eds.), Syntax: Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung, Volume 1, 707- 721. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #148: If adjectives are inflected, so are nouns.
- Universal #150: If head nouns have adjective-like inflection, so do adnominal nouns.
- Universal #151: If adnominal adjectives inflect like nouns, so do headless ones.
- Universal #153: If, as a rule, nouns share inflectional properties with adjectives, they also share them with determiners.
- Universal #183: If there is case-inflection on nouns, there is also case-inflection on some pronouns.
- Universal #184: If the accusative-case marker in (3rd person) pronouns and indefinite nouns is the same, it will also be the s
- Universal #193: If in a language verbs assign morphological case, so do adpositions; and vice versa.
- Universal #194: ... in case in a language numerals are case-assigners, so are verbs and/or adpositions.
- Universal #195: If in a language adjectives assign morphological case to their complements, the range of cases assigned by the
- Universal #580: If any inflectional category is expressed through suppletion in nouns, it is also expressed suppletively in pr
- Universal #585: If there is any inflection in nouns, there are also some inflections in pronouns.
Inflectional morphology in the Hungarian noun phrase: A typological assessment. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/22, 127-185.
Cited in:
- Universal #167: If a language has a distinct case marker to express “direction to”, it also has one to express “location”; and
- Universal #168: The morphological complexity of a case marker to signal “direction to” is never less than that of a case marke
- Universal #169: If an adposition and a case affix are involved in a government relation, it is always the adposition that gove
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #171: If a noun phrase constituent carries case and number inflection when co-occurring with a noun, it can also fil
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #387: If a language has nominal inflection, it also has verbal inflection.
- Universal #389: Languages without inflectional gender are agglutinating, and vice versa.
- Universal #392: If a language has a group plural, it also has a basic plural.
- Universal #393: If a language has the category of group plural at all, it will use it only with singular definite nouns, such
- Universal #394: If a language shows person-number marking on adpositions, it also shows the same on nouns; if it shows person-
- Universal #395: If a language has cross-referential inflection, it also has some self-referencing expression of the same categ
- Universal #397: The more frequent and syntagmatically simple forms show paradigmatically complexity, the less frequent and syn
- Universal #398: An affix may condition inwards if in some other context an affix of the same type conditions outwards in the s
- Universal #399: If a language has homonymous inflectional affixes that express a single meaning element, then, if the language
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #402: If in a language any inflectional categories are expressed cumulatively and the language does have person-numb
- Universal #403: If in a language there is any cumulative expression in a nominal paradigm, there will be cumulative expression
- Universal #404: If a construction involves a free and a bound constituent which convey the same meaning and one of them is opt
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #408: If person marking in possessed nouns and intransitive verbs is phonologically identical, this will also be the
- Universal #409: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of non-perfective ten
- Universal #410: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and verbs of non-indicative moods (imperativ
- Universal #411: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of the non-subordinat
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #415: With the exception of some North-Western Caucasian languages, no European language has person-number cross-ref
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
- Universal #589: If a language is of the agglutinative type, then it cannot have grammatical gender.
- Universal #590: ... eine höchst bemerkenswerte Erscheinung, die nur in flektierenden Sprachen anzutreffen ist, das ist das gra
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1724: If the definite article co-occurs with the noun accompanied by a demonstrative, it also co-occurs with nouns a
- Universal #1725: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by a pronominal possessor, it also co-occurs with t
- Universal #1726: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by an adjacent possessor, it also co-occurs with th
- Universal #1727: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by adnominal possessives that are not marked for ge
- Universal #1728: If the article co-occurs with the noun when the demonstrative or the possessive is preposed, it also co-occurs
- Universal #1729: Nominally used demonstratives never occur with the non-bound definite article.
- Universal #1730: If the definite article can be the sole marker of definiteness in a noun phrase, it can also be the sole marke
- Universal #1731: Indigenous non-affixal articles are polyfunctional and at least one of their additional uses is pronominal.
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1733: If any non-bound noun phrase constituent can occur nominally, so can all other more peripherally ordered ones.
- Universal #1734: The phonological body of the definite article is never more substantial in adnominal use than in pronominal us
- Universal #1735: The phonological body of any noun phrase constituent is never more substantial in adnominal use than in pronom
- Universal #1736: If a noun phrase constituent has special adnominal and nominal forms for any of its more marked members, it te
- Universal #1737: The definite article never carries more gender, number, and/or case inflection in adnominal use than it does i
- Universal #1738: No noun phrase constituent carries more gender, number, and/or case inflection in adnominal use than it does i
- Universal #1739: The definite article may govern but is never governed by a noun-phrase-internal constituent.
- Universal #1740: If an article is the sole carrier of gender and/or number and/or case, it will co-occur with definite and gene
- Universal #1741: If a less peripherally ordered noun phrase constituent marks gender, number, and/or case redundantly, so can a
- Universal #1742: If the adnominal demonstrative or possessive occurs with a noun that is accompanied by the definite article at
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
Parts and wholes in definite article constructions. Handout of paper read at the Pre-inaugural meetingof ALT, Konstanz, November 30.
Cited in:
- Universal #167: If a language has a distinct case marker to express “direction to”, it also has one to express “location”; and
- Universal #168: The morphological complexity of a case marker to signal “direction to” is never less than that of a case marke
- Universal #169: If an adposition and a case affix are involved in a government relation, it is always the adposition that gove
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #171: If a noun phrase constituent carries case and number inflection when co-occurring with a noun, it can also fil
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #387: If a language has nominal inflection, it also has verbal inflection.
- Universal #389: Languages without inflectional gender are agglutinating, and vice versa.
- Universal #392: If a language has a group plural, it also has a basic plural.
- Universal #393: If a language has the category of group plural at all, it will use it only with singular definite nouns, such
- Universal #394: If a language shows person-number marking on adpositions, it also shows the same on nouns; if it shows person-
- Universal #395: If a language has cross-referential inflection, it also has some self-referencing expression of the same categ
- Universal #397: The more frequent and syntagmatically simple forms show paradigmatically complexity, the less frequent and syn
- Universal #398: An affix may condition inwards if in some other context an affix of the same type conditions outwards in the s
- Universal #399: If a language has homonymous inflectional affixes that express a single meaning element, then, if the language
- Universal #400: If a language indicates number in the 1st and/or 2nd person pronoun by inflection, it does so also in the 3rd
- Universal #401: If a language indicates number in the 1st and /or 2nd person pronoun by using a plural marker also used for no
- Universal #402: If in a language any inflectional categories are expressed cumulatively and the language does have person-numb
- Universal #403: If in a language there is any cumulative expression in a nominal paradigm, there will be cumulative expression
- Universal #404: If a construction involves a free and a bound constituent which convey the same meaning and one of them is opt
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #408: If person marking in possessed nouns and intransitive verbs is phonologically identical, this will also be the
- Universal #409: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of non-perfective ten
- Universal #410: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and verbs of non-indicative moods (imperativ
- Universal #411: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of the non-subordinat
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #415: With the exception of some North-Western Caucasian languages, no European language has person-number cross-ref
- Universal #416: Affixes are ordered so that their increasing distance from the stem reflects decreasing semantic relevance to
- Universal #417: The degree of bounding between stem and affix is in proportion to the semantic relevance of the affix to the s
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #586: Semantically simple morphemes are never systematically more complex in phonetic form than semantically more co
- Universal #589: If a language is of the agglutinative type, then it cannot have grammatical gender.
- Universal #590: ... eine höchst bemerkenswerte Erscheinung, die nur in flektierenden Sprachen anzutreffen ist, das ist das gra
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1304: If a language is postpositional, nominalizing affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1724: If the definite article co-occurs with the noun accompanied by a demonstrative, it also co-occurs with nouns a
- Universal #1725: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by a pronominal possessor, it also co-occurs with t
- Universal #1726: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by an adjacent possessor, it also co-occurs with th
- Universal #1727: If the article co-occurs with the noun that is accompanied by adnominal possessives that are not marked for ge
- Universal #1728: If the article co-occurs with the noun when the demonstrative or the possessive is preposed, it also co-occurs
- Universal #1729: Nominally used demonstratives never occur with the non-bound definite article.
- Universal #1730: If the definite article can be the sole marker of definiteness in a noun phrase, it can also be the sole marke
- Universal #1731: Indigenous non-affixal articles are polyfunctional and at least one of their additional uses is pronominal.
- Universal #1732: In most languages the demonstrative pronoun and demonstrative adjective are identical.
- Universal #1733: If any non-bound noun phrase constituent can occur nominally, so can all other more peripherally ordered ones.
- Universal #1734: The phonological body of the definite article is never more substantial in adnominal use than in pronominal us
- Universal #1735: The phonological body of any noun phrase constituent is never more substantial in adnominal use than in pronom
- Universal #1736: If a noun phrase constituent has special adnominal and nominal forms for any of its more marked members, it te
- Universal #1737: The definite article never carries more gender, number, and/or case inflection in adnominal use than it does i
- Universal #1738: No noun phrase constituent carries more gender, number, and/or case inflection in adnominal use than it does i
- Universal #1739: The definite article may govern but is never governed by a noun-phrase-internal constituent.
- Universal #1740: If an article is the sole carrier of gender and/or number and/or case, it will co-occur with definite and gene
- Universal #1741: If a less peripherally ordered noun phrase constituent marks gender, number, and/or case redundantly, so can a
- Universal #1742: If the adnominal demonstrative or possessive occurs with a noun that is accompanied by the definite article at
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Universal #1762: SOV languages cannot borrow a set of prepositions.
Summing up Suffixaufnahme. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 451-484.
Cited in:
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #17: If Suffixaufnahme occurs with the head present, it also occurs with the head missing.
- Universal #18: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs in multi-level possessive constructions, it also occurs in single-l
- Universal #19: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs with nominal possessors, it also occurs with pronominal ones.
- Universal #20: In all languages, if a nominal possessor carries external case, so does the pronominal one.
- Universal #21: In almost all languages if the internal case involved in Suffixaufnahme is a case other than that of the posse
- Universal #22: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs when the adnominal case is the same as the head case, then it also
- Universal #23: In all languages, the range of cases that can be marked on the head of a Suffixaufnahme construction may never
- Universal #24: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs with continuous NPs, it also occurs with discontinuous ones, if suc
- Universal #25: In all languages, if an adnominal nominal preceding the head shows Suffixaufnahme, so does an adnominal nomina
- Universal #26: In all languages that mark a constituent preposed to the noun for inflectional categories such as number, gend
- Universal #27: In Suffixaufnahme constructions the ligative (if there is one) is always ordered between the internal and exte
- Universal #28: In no language is there Präfixaufnahme involving a ligative.
- Universal #29: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs without pause between the head and the attributive nominal, it also
- Universal #30: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has NP-internal attributive constituents outside this construction.
- Universal #31: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has other NP-internal attributive constituents showing agreement in
- Universal #32: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the internal case occurring without the external case.
- Universal #33: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the external case occurring without the internal case.
- Universal #34: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has affix sequences outside the construction.
- Universal #35: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then adjectives agree with their heads in the same category.
- Universal #36: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it will also have at least one of the following NP-internal case marking pat
- Universal #37: If Suffixaufnahme is historically preceded by a different construction, one possibility for that construction
- Universal #38: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in headed and headless NPs at one time and at some later time it has Suf
- Universal #39: If a language has Suffixaufnahme with both preposed and postposed attributives at one time and at some earlier
- Universal #40: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in NPs where the attributive and the head are prosodically separated and
- Universal #41: If a nominal has two or more affixes at one time and at an earlier time one of those was not present, it is th
- Universal #42: If a language has Suffixaufnahme at one time and at some later point it does not, one possible successor const
- Universal #585: If there is any inflection in nouns, there are also some inflections in pronouns.
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1164: Any noun that is pronominalizable may take a definite article, but of these, only those that are numerable may
Parts and wholes in the Hungarian noun phrase: A typological study. In Bohumil Palek (ed.) 1997, 307-324.
Cited in:
- Universal #522: In more than one language, but not in all, the adnominal and pronominal demonstratives stems are fully or part
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #524: In more than one language, but not in all, the demonstrative and the definite article co-occur.
- Universal #525: In more than one language, and possibly in all, preposed demonstratives are peripheral to tautolateral numeral
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
- Universal #579: The Agreement HierarchyIf agreement features are optionally referential-semantic or syntactic, the likelihood
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #1066: In case of polite plural subject, ... more verb-like predicates tend to agree with features of the surface sub
- Universal #1167: If a language has a grammaticalized indefinite article, it is likely to also have a definite article, while th
Infixes. In Geert Booij et al (eds.), 545-552.
Cited in:
- Universal #427: It holds both for gender and number that if any constituent in a language shows agreement in these property ty
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1945: If a language has denominal derivation, it has nominal derivation (=derivation of something else to nouns).
- Universal #1946: The use of all other processes of nominal derivation and inflection (namely internal modification, suprasegmen
- Universal #1947: If an infix has an alternative position outside the word, that external position is always at the edge of the
- Rara #111: infix positioned after the last consonant of the onset of the stem, i.e., after the first consonant if there i
- Rara #112: infix positioned after the vowel of the penultimate syllable of the stem
- Rara #113: infix positioned after the second syllable of the stem
Functional structure, word order typology and linearity. Lingua e Stile 22: 179-196.
Cited in:
- Universal #1340: Universal Hierarchy of Markedness of basic word orders:SOV < SVO < OVS < VOS < VSO < OSV
- Universal #1341: The more marked a basic word order is, the stronger the tendency towards having a less marked alternative word
- Universal #1342: The more marked the position in which a word appears, the stronger the tendency for this word to present a mar
- Universal #1343: An element which serves as a semantic link between two other elements is likely to occur in linear order betwe
Markedness relations and implicational universals in the typology of onset obstruent clusters. Proceedings of the North East Linguistic Society 28: 107-120.
Cited in:
- Universal #1785: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has stop + fricative onset clusters.
- Universal #1786: If a language has stop + fricative onset clusters, then it has stop + stop onset clusters.
- Universal #1787: If a language has fricative + stop onset clusters, then it has fricative + fricative onset clusters.
The phonetics and phonology of word-initial geminates. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University.
Word order and temporal sequencing. In Doris L. Payne (ed.), Pragmatics of Word Order Flexibility, 265-278. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
A study in phonemic universals, especially concerning fricatives and stops. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 46.
Cited in:
- Universal #769: There is a highly significant tendency for languages to have at least one primary fricative.
- Universal #770: If a language has only one primary fricative its primary allophone is most likely to be /s/.
- Universal #771: If a language has only two primary fricatives, the second one is most likely to be /f/.
- Universal #772: In a given language the number of voiceless primary fricatives is highly likely to be greater than the number
- Universal #773: The presence of a voiced primary fricative in a language is highly likely to imply the presence of its voicele
- Universal #774: The preferred number of primary fricatives in a given language is two.
- Universal #775: In a given language the number of primary fricatives is very unlikely to be greater than the number of stops a
- Universal #776: No language has secondary fricatives unless it also has primary fricatives.
- Universal #777: The number of secondary fricatives in a given language is never greater than that of primary fricatives.
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #779: A language is very unlikely to have /h/ unless it also has a primary fricative.
- Universal #780: Languages usually have at least three primary oral stops.
- Universal #781: If a language has only three primary oral stops, their primary allophones are most likely to be /p t k/.
- Universal #782: If a language has an affricated stop, it is most likely that it also has (at least) three plain stops.
- Universal #783:
- Universal #784: In a given language the number of voiceless primary oral stops is nearly always greater than the number of voi
- Universal #785: The presence of a voiced primary oral stop in a language is highly likely to imply the presence of its voicele
- Universal #786: In a given language, the number of primary oral affricates will be less than the number of primary oral stops.
- Universal #787: The preferred number of primary oral stops in a given language is between four and eight.
- Universal #788: A language is highly unlikely to have secondary oral stops unless it also has primary oral stops.
- Universal #789: The number of secondary oral stops in a given language is not likely to be greater than that of primary oral s
- Universal #790: No language has a glottal stop unless it also has a primary oral stop.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #794: The preferred number of primary nasal consonants in a language is between two and four.
- Universal #795: No language has Secondary Nasal Consonants unless it has one or more Primary Nasal Consonants.
- Universal #796: In a given language, the number of Secondary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of Primary Nasa
- Universal #797: If a language has only one place of articulation for a given type of consonant it is most likely to be the alv
- Universal #798: There is a very highly significant tendency for languages to have more voiceless obstruents than voiced ones.
- Universal #799: The presence of a voiced obstruent in a given language is most likely to imply the presence of its voiceless c
- Universal #800:
- Universal #1427: Secondary fricatives are the results of diachronic developments from clusters.
- Universal #1428: Secondary oral stops, apart from borrowings, are the results of diachronic developments from clusters.
Ob areal’nyx universalijax (na materiale kauzativnyx glagolov) [Concerning areal universals (on the material of causative verbs).] In Konferencija po problemam izucenija universal’nyx i areal’nyx svojstv jazyka. Tezisy, 55-58. Moskva: Nauka.
Nekotorye verojatnostnye universalii v glagol’nom slovoobrazovanii. [Some probable universals within verbal word formation.] In Ivan Vardul’ (ed.), Jazykovye universalii i lingvisticeskaja tipologija. 106-114. Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #227: If a language has only affixes which derive causatives form intransitive verbs, it is unlikely that these affi
- Universal #286: In all languages: if there are tri-valent causatives derived from bi-valent non-causative verbs, there must al
- Universal #287: If a causative morpheme is unproductive in relation to transitives, forming from them a relatively small (clos
- Universal #288: If there is a verb morpheme with the meaning of dativus commodi, there is a causative morpheme as well.
- Universal #289: If a causative morpheme in any language can express permissiveness, it can usually also express factitivity.
- Universal #1583: If there are causative affixes in a language which serve to form causative verbs from transitives, then this l
- Universal #1584: If a language has several causative affixes, the means for deriving causatives from intransitives are more var
- Universal #1585: If there are productive complex affixes among the causative affixes, then by means of them causatives can also
- Universal #1586: If a language has a causative morpheme which expresses permissiveness, this morpheme usually combines with a l
- Universal #1587: The following four causative oppositions: (1) laugh - make laugh, amuse; (2) boil - bring to boil; (3) burn -
Zametki po tipologii refleksivnyx deagentivnyx konstrukcij (opyt iscislenija). [Scetches on typology of reflexive deagentive constructions (experience of calculus).] In Viktor S. Xrakovskij (ed.), Problemy teorii grammaticeskogo zaloga, 28-36. Leningrad: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #1568: As a rule, the existence of objective reflexive constructions presupposes a developed system of subjective ref
- Universal #1569: Within the class of deagentive reflexive constrictions the following implications may be assumed: if there are
- Universal #1570: If there is a group of deagentive reflexive constructions, where (a) the agent can be expressed,(b) there is n
Reflexive constructions: A functional typology. In Brettschneider & Lehmann (eds.) 1980, 222-228.
Cited in:
- Universal #1568: As a rule, the existence of objective reflexive constructions presupposes a developed system of subjective ref
- Universal #1569: Within the class of deagentive reflexive constrictions the following implications may be assumed: if there are
- Universal #1570: If there is a group of deagentive reflexive constructions, where (a) the agent can be expressed,(b) there is n
- Universal #1571: If there are reflexive constructions of type (a) ‘Er küßt sich mit ihr’ in a language, there are likely to be
- Universal #1572: If a language has both (a) reflexive construction with the true passive meaning and (b) special (e.g., analyti
- Universal #1573: If both perfective and imperfective verbs build the passive forms with reflexive marker, the constraints on th
- Universal #1574: If there are (a) passive verb forms with reflexive marker and (b) special (e.g., participial) verb forms for t
- Universal #1575: If a language has homonymous (a) decausative reflexive verb and (b) reflexive verb with the passive sense, it
- Universal #1576: If there are reciprocal and antipassive reflexive verb and if there is any overlapping between any groups of r
- Universal #1577: If there are any antipassive reflexive verbs, they are most likely to possess the reciprocal sense as well.
- Universal #1578: If there are any reflexive verbs built by adding reflexive marker and an affix (or a predicative adjective, et
- Universal #1579: If there are any reflexive verbs derived from intransitives by adding reflexive marker and an affix (or a pred
- Universal #1580: If a language has a complex system both of reflexive constructions and causative constructions (with lexical o
- Universal #1581: If there is a reflexive verb meaning 'to laugh' it is usually not derived from the transitive base meaning 'to
- Universal #1582: If both the reflexive marker and the causative marker in a language are affixes, both are: (a) either prefixes
Osnovnye tipy deepricastij. [Main types of converbs.] In Leonid A. Birjulin, Ivan F. Vardul’, & Viktor S. Xrakovskij (eds.), Tipologija i grammatika, 36-59. Moskva: Nauka.
Some typological parameters of converbs. In Haspelmath & König (eds.) 1995, 97-126.
Nedjalkov, Vladimir P. & Sergej Je. Jaxontov (1983 [1988]). Tipologija rezul’tativnyx konstrukcij. [The typology of resultative constructions.] In Nedjalkov (ed.) 1983, 5-40. Translated in Nedjalkov (ed.) 1988, 3-62.
Tipologija morfologiceskogo i leksiceskogo kauzativov. [The typology of morphological and lexical causatives.] In Alexandr A. Xolodovic (ed.), Tipologija kauzativnyx konstrukcij: morfologiceskij kauzativ, 20-50. Leningrad: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #227: If a language has only affixes which derive causatives form intransitive verbs, it is unlikely that these affi
- Universal #286: In all languages: if there are tri-valent causatives derived from bi-valent non-causative verbs, there must al
- Universal #287: If a causative morpheme is unproductive in relation to transitives, forming from them a relatively small (clos
- Universal #288: If there is a verb morpheme with the meaning of dativus commodi, there is a causative morpheme as well.
- Universal #289: If a causative morpheme in any language can express permissiveness, it can usually also express factitivity.
- Universal #1583: If there are causative affixes in a language which serve to form causative verbs from transitives, then this l
- Universal #1584: If a language has several causative affixes, the means for deriving causatives from intransitives are more var
- Universal #1585: If there are productive complex affixes among the causative affixes, then by means of them causatives can also
- Universal #1586: If a language has a causative morpheme which expresses permissiveness, this morpheme usually combines with a l
- Universal #1587: The following four causative oppositions: (1) laugh - make laugh, amuse; (2) boil - bring to boil; (3) burn -
The typology of morphological and lexical causatives. In Ferenc Kiefer (ed.), Trends in Soviet Theoretical Linguistics, 1-32. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Cited in:
- Universal #227: If a language has only affixes which derive causatives form intransitive verbs, it is unlikely that these affi
- Universal #287: If a causative morpheme is unproductive in relation to transitives, forming from them a relatively small (clos
- Universal #289: If a causative morpheme in any language can express permissiveness, it can usually also express factitivity.
- Universal #1583: If there are causative affixes in a language which serve to form causative verbs from transitives, then this l
- Universal #1584: If a language has several causative affixes, the means for deriving causatives from intransitives are more var
- Universal #1585: If there are productive complex affixes among the causative affixes, then by means of them causatives can also
- Universal #1586: If a language has a causative morpheme which expresses permissiveness, this morpheme usually combines with a l
- Universal #1587: The following four causative oppositions: (1) laugh - make laugh, amuse; (2) boil - bring to boil; (3) burn -
Tipologija rezul’tativnyx konstrukcij. [Typology of Resultative Constructions.] Leningrad: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #961: The probability of tense forms in the resultative is determined by the implication:future tense ⇒ past te
- Universal #1099: If there are mono-valent resultatives formed from bi-valent verbs in a language this implies that there must b
- Universal #1297: The presence of possessive resultatives implies subjective resultatives, and this in turn implies objective re
- Universal #1298: If in a language there is dative and/or locative resultative, then there is objective resultative.
- Universal #1299: Hierarchy of resultative formation:unobservable > irreversible observable > monovalent reversible > bivalent l
- Universal #1300: In languages where both resultatives proper and derived statives have the same form, the probability for a res
- Universal #1301: For the languages with both the passive and resultative, the following implication could be suggested: if an a
Typology of Resultative Constructions. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #961: The probability of tense forms in the resultative is determined by the implication:future tense ⇒ past te
- Universal #1099: If there are mono-valent resultatives formed from bi-valent verbs in a language this implies that there must b
- Universal #1297: The presence of possessive resultatives implies subjective resultatives, and this in turn implies objective re
- Universal #1298: If in a language there is dative and/or locative resultative, then there is objective resultative.
- Universal #1299: Hierarchy of resultative formation:unobservable > irreversible observable > monovalent reversible > bivalent l
- Universal #1300: In languages where both resultatives proper and derived statives have the same form, the probability for a res
- Universal #1301: For the languages with both the passive and resultative, the following implication could be suggested: if an a
Segmental inventory size, word length, and communicative efficiency. Linguistics 33: 359-367.
Verbal semantics and sentence construction. Berkley Linguistic Society 1: 343-353.
Another typology of relatives. Berkley Linguistic Society 10: 524-541.
Cited in:
- Universal #1651: For dependent-marking patterns, clause marking type implies relativization type; while for the head-marking pa
- Universal #1652: Clause-affecting relativization inherently favours dependent-marking and disfavours head-marking.
- Universal #1653: The great majority of pronominalization strategies, regardless of language type, favour dependent-marking patt
Head-marking and dependent-marking grammar. Language 62: 56-119.
Cited in:
- Universal #438: Verb-initial order and lack of any determinate or stated order favour head-marking; verb-medial and verb-final
- Universal #972: The decision whether the governor (head) or the governee (dependent) is morphologically marked tends to be mad
- Universal #1650: If a language has major, salient, head-marking morphology anywhere, it will have it at the clause level.If a l
On alienable and inalienable possession. In William Shipley (ed.), In Honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas Festival Conference on Native American Linguistics, 557-610. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #1588: Semantic scale of inalienable possession:kin terms and/or body parts > part-whole and/or spatial relations > c
- Universal #1589: The inalienables take marking which is more nearly head-marking or less dependent-marking than the marking of
- Universal #1590: An opposition of "alienable" and "inalienable" possession is almost inevitable in languages where possession i
- Universal #1591: Bound nouns appear to exist only where there is head-marked possession.
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #225: Difference of case inventories in the different systems:the strong active system is characterized by an absenc
- Universal #257: Among the most important morphological implications of the active languages are the following: diathesis of th
- Universal #436: Head-marking is associated with low complexity, dependent marking with high complexity, where complexity is th
- Universal #437: Ergative alignment is associated with dependent marking , stative-active and hierarchical with head marking.
- Universal #438: Verb-initial order and lack of any determinate or stated order favour head-marking; verb-medial and verb-final
- Universal #439: Ergative alignment is associated with high complexity.This correlation is not direct one, but a consequence of
- Universal #440: Non-accusative alignment may be associated with verb-initial order.
- Universal #1589: The inalienables take marking which is more nearly head-marking or less dependent-marking than the marking of
- Universal #1590: An opposition of "alienable" and "inalienable" possession is almost inevitable in languages where possession i
- Rara #119: "conjunct vs. disjunct" system of (bound) person marking, with the conjunct form referring to the speaker in s
Ergativity and linguistic geography. Australian Journal of Linguistics 13: 39-89.
Complementation. In Timothy Shopen (ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume 2: Complex constructions, 42-140. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1925: If the verb in main clauses is inflected for subject or object agreement, then the verb in any sentence-like c
- Universal #1926: Only languages that distinguish tense and/or aspect in their verbal morphology will be likely to have an indic
- Universal #1927: It seems that all languages with subjunctive complements can use subjunctives as main clauses (though the reve
Principles of stress assignment: A crosslinguistic view. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 9-1: 157-175.
Physical models in phonology. Proceedings of the VIIth International Conference on Phonetic Sciences, 1166-9. Montreal.
Experimantal historical phonology. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of Historical Linguistics.
Universals of labial velars and De Saussure’s chess anaolgy. In Eli Fisher-Jørgensen, Jørgen Rischel, & Nina Thorsen (eds.), Proceedings of the IXth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 41-47. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen.
Symmetrical compounds in Khmer. Studies in Language 24: 483-514.
Cited in:
- Universal #691: In exclusively prefixing languages, if symmetrical reduplicative compounds exist, they will be overwhelmingly
- Rara #119: "conjunct vs. disjunct" system of (bound) person marking, with the conjunct form referring to the speaker in s
- Rara #130: a basic colour term for undifferentiated YELLOW-GREEN-BLUE, as a "catch-everything-else" category in addition
Testing iconicity. Belgian Journal of Linguistics 4: 145-163.
Cited in:
- Universal #1788: The Length Strategy: The longer a sentence is, the more likely it is to be classified as belonging to a more f
- Universal #1789: The Particle Strategy: The more short, particle-like words a sentence contains, the more likely it is to be cl
- Universal #1790: The shorter a linguistic expression is, the more likely it is will be associated with familiarity and high fre
Structure in feature geometry. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Proceedings of LP ’96: Typology: Prototypes, Item Orderings and Universals. Prague: Charles University Press.
Tipologines pastabos del gimines kategorijos formavimosi. [Typological notes on the development of gender.] Baltistica 14-1: 27-38.
The Pragmatics of Word Order: Typological Dimensions of Verb Initial Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #382: All languages have constructions whose function is to place topic, both old and new, before comment.
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1535: Verb-initial languages evidence significant prefixing, though normally there is some suffixing as well. There
- Universal #1536: Verb-initial languages may be agglutinative and polysynthetic.
- Universal #1537: In verb-initial languages the comparative form precedes the standard.
- Universal #1538: In verb-initial languages, the question particle, if any, occurs sentence initial in yes-no questions.
- Universal #1539: In verb-initial languages, in NP questions, a questioned NP is always frontable and this is the normal pattern
- Universal #1540: In verb-initial languages, there is a tendency for many types of subordinate clauses to be finite.
- Universal #1541: In verb-initial languages, subordinate markers such as complementizers, nominalizers, and subordinate conjunct
- Universal #1542: In verb-initial languages, sentences which are subordinate to verbs, adjectives, or nouns invariably follow th
- Universal #1543: In verb-initial languages, coordinate sentences are commonly expressed as [S and S]. [S, S and] is not atteste
- Universal #1544: In verb-initial languages, speech act indicators (e.g. question particles, etc.) are normally sentence initial
- Universal #1545: In verb-initial languages, all major NPs may be case marked, but it is very common for most major NPs to carry
- Universal #1546: In verb-initial languages, where affixal case marking occurs, it is more likely to be prefixal than in verb-fi
- Universal #1547: In verb-initial languages, where case marking exists, it is normally done by prepositions.
- Universal #1548: In verb-initial languages, verbal case marking is attested to a very significant degree.
- Universal #1549: In verb-initial languages, the demonstrative, numeral, and qualifying adjective follow the common noun in that
- Universal #1550: In verb-initial languages, there is probably less agreement of adjectives with common nouns than in verb-final
- Universal #1551: In verb-initial languages, the presence of definite articles distinct from demonstratives is much more common
- Universal #1552: In verb-initial languages, the existence of several articles (definite, indefinite, specific, plural, proper n
- Universal #1553: With great regularity possessor NPs follow the head NP in verb-initial languages.
- Universal #1554: In verb-initial languages the dominant order of relative clauses is always postnominal.
- Universal #1555: In verb-initial languages, occurrence of personal pronouns in positions relativized is fairly common, though r
- Universal #1556: In verb-initial and verb-final languages, but not in verb-medial ones, relative pronouns which code the case o
- Universal #1557: In verb-initial languages, if expressed by morphemically independent forms, modals, auxiliaries (if such exist
- Universal #1558: In verb-initial languages, manner adverbs follow the verb if they are a distinct category.
- Universal #1559: In verb-initial languages, sentential objects always follow the subject and are very commonly finite as oppose
- Universal #1560: In verb-initial languages, sentential objects are never embedded. They normally follow the main sentence but m
- Universal #1561: In verb-initial languages, verbal forms subordinate to the to the “main” verb (e.g. complements of verbs like
- Universal #1562: In verb-initial languages, causativized verbs follow the causativizing verb.
- Universal #1563: Verb-initial languages always have a passive voice and it is almost always marked in the verbal morphology (ra
- Universal #1564: With possibly greater than chance frequency, the verb in verb-initial languages either agrees with no NPs, or
- Universal #1565: Verb-initial languages normally have no overt copula.
Complex phrases and complex sentences. In Timothy Shopen (ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume 2: Complex constructions, 3-41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #67: If a language has VSO word order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #71: If a language has Postp word order, and if the adjective precedes the noun, then the genitive precedes the nou
- Universal #98: If a language has Postp word order, then if the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, the
- Universal #714: The phrasal categories appear to form a hierarchy: S —VP—AP—PP—NP.It is claimed that a language will not use o
- Universal #825: Correlatives are limited to verb-final languages, and in fact, are largely limited to "loose" verb-final ones,
- Universal #1555: In verb-initial languages, occurrence of personal pronouns in positions relativized is fairly common, though r
Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide For Field Linguists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #68: If a language has verb-first order, then if the adjective follows the noun, the genitive follows the noun.
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #1932: There is an apparently universal iconic tendency in diminutives and augmentatives: diminutives tend to contain
- Universal #1933: If nothing else in the language agrees with nouns in terms of class, numeral expressions will.
“Null” Determiners vs. No Determiners. Lecture read at the 2nd Winter Typology School, 31 January ? 5 February 2000, Moscow.
Peterson, Gordon E. & Ilse Lehiste (1976) Duration of syllable nuclei in English. Journal of the Acoustics Society of America 32: 693-703.
Variability in feature dependency: The case of nasality. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 10: 33-77.
Über den Ursprung der voneinander abweichenden Struktur der Munda- und Khmer-Nicobar-Sprachen. Indo-Iranian Journal 4: 81-103.
The interpretation and development of form alternations conditioned across word boundaries: The case of wife’s, wives, and wives’. In Roger Eaton, Olga Fisher, Willem Koopman, & Frederike van Leek (eds.), Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, 205-233. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #364: In flective and introflective languages word forms tend to be between two and three syllables long, agglutinat
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #367: Derivational affixes tend to have a more complex syllabic structure in agglutinative languages than in flectiv
- Universal #368: Whereas the phonological structure of affixes is very similar to the structure of stems in the agglutinative t
- Universal #369: Typically, agglutinative languages, where stems and affixes are bound together more loosely than in flective a
- Universal #370: In agglutinative languages casual or fast speech shows less phonological deletion, fusion, and weakening than
- Universal #375: It is impossible for minimal case systems to include, in addition to the basic general case, only a single fur
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #655: The consonant-vowel ratio is comparatively high in polysynthetic languages, where morphemes are comparatively
- Universal #893: Iambic vs. Troachaic phrase accent and its many correlatesSee Graphics
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #907: If noun phrases take case marking when occurring in core relations governed by verbs and other lexical express
- Universal #908: Allomorphy cannot be conditioned across (grammatical) word boundaries.
- Universal #909: In any language, case marking by means of segmental modification implies that affixes are also utilized in thi
- Universal #910: Adpositions may encode the valency-bound syntactic core relations of subject and object and perhaps attribute
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Universal #1948: One generally unremarked fact is that 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a pluralit
- Universal #2014: Suggested hierarchy of base types for diminutivisation and augmentativisation:Noun > Adjective, Verb > Adverb,
- Rara #39: nominative (marking intransitive and transitive subject) as the morphologically marked case vis-à-vis (zero-ma
Paradigm size, morphological typology, and universal economy. Folia Linguistica 20: 29-48.
Cited in:
- Universal #476: Correlation between Types of Exponence and the Number of Terms of inflexional categories (TENT):Cumulative and
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #1948: One generally unremarked fact is that 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a pluralit
- Rara #49: an extra-large case inventory, of above 20 cases
Direkte indirekte Objekte, oder: Was uns lehren lehrt. Leuvenese Bijdragen 76: 37-61.
Cited in:
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #659: The probability of homophony is inversely related to the number of principal phonemes and to the length of seq
- Universal #952: If direct and indirect/non-direct objects can be distinguished paradigmatically, then they can be distinguishe
- Universal #953: If direct and indirect/non-direct objects are distinguished in their coding, then they also differ in their sy
- Universal #954: If direct and indirect/non-direct objects are syntagmatically distinguished at all, then they are distinguishe
- Universal #955: If direct and indirect/non-direct objects differ in their overt coding of whatever kind (at least minimally),
- Universal #956: If direct and indirect/non-direct objects differ in their morphological coding (at least minimally), then they
- Universal #957: If verbs of material transfer (giving and taking) and/or verbs of commanding exhibit anomalies with respect to
On Humboldt on the dual. In Roberta Corrigan, Fred Eckman, & Michael Noonan (eds.), Linguistic Categorization, 293-333. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cited in:
- Universal #142: In noun-phrase-internal agreement, if adjectives inflect for the dual, so do demonstratives.
- Universal #255: If there exists a regular number distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily present in the pro
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #966: The more distinct the definite article form is from demonstratives, the more likely its position relative to t
- Universal #1122: If the pronominal dual does not extend to the 3rd person, there very likely is no nominal dual at all, or, if
- Universal #1123: If the extension of the pronominal dual is limited and includes the 3rd person, all nouns or at least some of
- Universal #1124: The nominal dual is likelier to be restricted to natural pairs if the pronominal dual is unrestricted than if
- Universal #1125: If the nominal dual is restricted to nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, the pronominal dual is unr
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
- Universal #1136: If only one person differentiates a dual, it will very likely be the 1st rather than the 2nd or 3rd.
- Universal #1137: If only two persons differentiate a dual, the 1st is much likelier to be one of them than the 3rd.
- Universal #1138: If a dual, or any other number, is differentiated for a particular person of non-pronominal agreement forms, t
- Universal #1139: If the dual extends to all number-inflecting personal pronouns and nouns, its conception will be that of a duo
- Universal #1140: If the dual is conceived of as a paucal limited to two referents, it will extend to all persons of the pronoun
- Universal #1141: If the nominal dual is restricted to nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, dual marking is avoided wi
- Universal #1487: If in a language there is a pronominal form denoting the dual of the metapersons 'hearer', 'hearer + non-parti
- Universal #1620: The Null Subject Parameter:Null subjects are permitted in all and only languages with morphologically uniform
On determiners. 1. Ellipsis and inflection; 2. Co-occurrence of possessives. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/11.
Cited in:
- Universal #12: If direct objects may control agreement (or take case marking) without doing so obligatorily, it will be the m
- Universal #42: If a language has Suffixaufnahme at one time and at some later point it does not, one possible successor const
- Universal #44:
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #47: Nominal predicate complements are more likely than adjectival and participial predicate complements not to agr
- Universal #48: The noun phrase (NP) internal distribution of case between head noun and any agreeing constituents is determin
- Universal #49: Case and number agreement of attributive adjectives are determined independently: number agreement is controll
- Universal #50: In agreement of adnominal modifiers with their heads (NP internal agreement), the agreement features may inclu
- Universal #51: In agreement of governors (verbs, adpositions, possessum noun phrases) with dependent NPs (NP external agreeme
- Universal #52: No target may agree in both case and person.
- Universal #53: In the construction of possessive attribution, only the possessor may agree in case with the possessum, while
- Universal #54: If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise
- Universal #103: Agreement should preferably occur in marked rather than unmarked construction types, e. g. with appositive rat
- Universal #104: When noun-phrase internal agreement (in class) is lost, it tends to disappear first on numerals, then on adjec
- Universal #105: Adjectives tend to lose class agreement before number agreement.
- Universal #106: Agreement loss, at least with class and number as agreement features, diffuses lexically, at least as far as a
- Universal #149: The number of inflectional classes of adjectives is never larger than the number of inflectional classes of no
- Universal #186: If there are declension classes (with different classes of nouns taking different exponents of case-number), t
- Universal #581: If stacked targets (such as attributive adjective and a determiner) may differ in agreeing on a referential-se
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #2010: [When the controller consists of conjoined NPs and they have features which require resolution,] in person res
- Rara #86: determiners and modifiers agreeing in all relevant agreement categories (gender, number, case) with only one o
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
Of abundance and scantiness in inflection: A typological prelude. In Frans Plank (ed.), Paradigms: The Economy of Inflection, 1-40. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #12: If direct objects may control agreement (or take case marking) without doing so obligatorily, it will be the m
- Universal #42: If a language has Suffixaufnahme at one time and at some later point it does not, one possible successor const
- Universal #44:
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #47: Nominal predicate complements are more likely than adjectival and participial predicate complements not to agr
- Universal #48: The noun phrase (NP) internal distribution of case between head noun and any agreeing constituents is determin
- Universal #49: Case and number agreement of attributive adjectives are determined independently: number agreement is controll
- Universal #50: In agreement of adnominal modifiers with their heads (NP internal agreement), the agreement features may inclu
- Universal #51: In agreement of governors (verbs, adpositions, possessum noun phrases) with dependent NPs (NP external agreeme
- Universal #52: No target may agree in both case and person.
- Universal #53: In the construction of possessive attribution, only the possessor may agree in case with the possessum, while
- Universal #54: If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise
- Universal #103: Agreement should preferably occur in marked rather than unmarked construction types, e. g. with appositive rat
- Universal #104: When noun-phrase internal agreement (in class) is lost, it tends to disappear first on numerals, then on adjec
- Universal #105: Adjectives tend to lose class agreement before number agreement.
- Universal #106: Agreement loss, at least with class and number as agreement features, diffuses lexically, at least as far as a
- Universal #149: The number of inflectional classes of adjectives is never larger than the number of inflectional classes of no
- Universal #186: If there are declension classes (with different classes of nouns taking different exponents of case-number), t
- Universal #581: If stacked targets (such as attributive adjective and a determiner) may differ in agreeing on a referential-se
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #2010: [When the controller consists of conjoined NPs and they have features which require resolution,] in person res
- Rara #86: determiners and modifiers agreeing in all relevant agreement categories (gender, number, case) with only one o
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
Journal of Linguistics 27: 532-542.
Cited in:
- Universal #1: Grammatical systems with ergativity tend to have ergative-accusative splits.
- Universal #12: If direct objects may control agreement (or take case marking) without doing so obligatorily, it will be the m
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #44:
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #47: Nominal predicate complements are more likely than adjectival and participial predicate complements not to agr
- Universal #48: The noun phrase (NP) internal distribution of case between head noun and any agreeing constituents is determin
- Universal #49: Case and number agreement of attributive adjectives are determined independently: number agreement is controll
- Universal #50: In agreement of adnominal modifiers with their heads (NP internal agreement), the agreement features may inclu
- Universal #51: In agreement of governors (verbs, adpositions, possessum noun phrases) with dependent NPs (NP external agreeme
- Universal #52: No target may agree in both case and person.
- Universal #53: In the construction of possessive attribution, only the possessor may agree in case with the possessum, while
- Universal #54: If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise
- Universal #103: Agreement should preferably occur in marked rather than unmarked construction types, e. g. with appositive rat
- Universal #104: When noun-phrase internal agreement (in class) is lost, it tends to disappear first on numerals, then on adjec
- Universal #105: Adjectives tend to lose class agreement before number agreement.
- Universal #106: Agreement loss, at least with class and number as agreement features, diffuses lexically, at least as far as a
- Universal #372: In a Verb Phrase, main stress should be to the right of Verb in VO languages and to its left in OV languages [
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #578: There is no language which distinguishes a Dual and a Plural in the exclusive but not in the inclusive form of
- Universal #581: If stacked targets (such as attributive adjective and a determiner) may differ in agreeing on a referential-se
- Universal #895: See Graphics
- Universal #1136: If only one person differentiates a dual, it will very likely be the 1st rather than the 2nd or 3rd.
- Universal #1409: The existence of a 2nd person dual pronoun seems to always imply that of a 1st person dual, whether with or wi
Adam Smith: Grammatical economist. In Peter Jones & Andrew S. Skinner (eds.), Adam Smith Reviewed, 21-55. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #179: There is a hierarchy: Number > Gender > Case, such that if some target agrees in one category on the hierarchy
- Universal #234: In times of inflectional expansion, if there is number inflection, there is also case inflection; and if there
- Universal #235: In phases of inflectional reduction and expansion of the fund of function words, if there are numerals and/or
- Universal #236: During inflectional expansion, if there are cases marking subject, object, and attribute, there are also local
- Universal #237: If adjectives inflect for any category, nouns inflect for this category as well.
- Universal #242: During inflectional expansion, if there is a plural, there is also a dual. During inflectional reduction, if t
- Universal #243: If verbs inflect for dual number, nouns inflect for dual number as well.
- Universal #244: Inflectional systems either have all three of the following properties or none of them: (i) inflectional expon
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Rara #42: number suppletion of the indefinite pronoun, with the singular form identical to the numeral 'one' and (here
What agrees with what in what, generally speaking? EUROTYP Working Papers VII/23: 39-58.
Cited in:
- Universal #119: If NP-internal constituents agree in two categories these will most likely be number and gender or number and
- Universal #120: If NP-internal constituents agree in more than two categories, the maximum being four, those will always inclu
- Universal #179: There is a hierarchy: Number > Gender > Case, such that if some target agrees in one category on the hierarchy
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1054: If there is agreement within NPs, there is, almost certainly, also agreement within clauses.
- Universal #1055: If there is agreement within clauses, agreement is likelier to be used than not to be used within NPs.
- Universal #1056: If determiners and modifiers agree both with head nouns, head nouns do not agree with attributive nouns, and v
- Universal #1057: If determiners agree within NPs, modifiers are likelier also to agree than not to agree.
- Universal #1058: If verbs agree in Number, they are very likely to agree in Person.
- Universal #1059: If verbs agree in Person, they are even likelier also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1060: If verbs agree in Gender, they are very likely also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1061: If verbs agree in Person, they are likelier not to agree than to agree in Gender.
- Universal #1062: If verbs agree in Gender, they are likelier to agree than not to agree in Person.
- Universal #1063: If NP-internal constituents agree in only a single category, this will not be Definiteness; it will most likel
- Universal #1064: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if NP-constituents agree in Number, cla
- Universal #1065: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if clause-constituents agree in Number,
- Universal #1126: If predicates can incorporate their arguments (i.e., verbs their subjects and objects), then head nouns can in
- Universal #1127: If nouns for alienable possession can incorporate their possessive pronouns, then nouns for inalienable posses
- Universal #1128: If nominal subjects can be incorporated into verbs, then nominal non-subjects can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1129: If pronominal objects can be incorporated, then possessor pronouns can also be incorporated;if possessor prono
- Universal #1130: If nouns can be incorporated, then pronouns can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1131: When nouns and pronouns can be incorporated, they have a special incorporated form (uninflected in the case of
- Universal #1132: If subjects and objects can be incorporated into verbs, then they are not case-marked when occurring absolutel
- Universal #1133: If there is incorporation, then the syntactic relations between the complex of incorporated and incorporator a
- Universal #1134: If a 3rd person pronoun can be incorporated when a corresponding absolute noun is present, then it can also be
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #39: nominative (marking intransitive and transitive subject) as the morphologically marked case vis-à-vis (zero-ma
- Rara #41: stem suppletion of a noun ('man, person') essentially determined by number, with one stem used for all singula
- Rara #42: number suppletion of the indefinite pronoun, with the singular form identical to the numeral 'one' and (here
- Rara #83: some noun-phrase internal agreement but no agreement at clause level
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
Aus der Geschichte der Abhängigkeiten: Wilhelm von Humboldt zu Mehrheitsbezeichnung und Einverleibungssystem. In Klaus Zimmermann, Jürgen Trabant, & Kurt Mueller-Vollmer (eds.), Wilhelm von Humboldt und die amerikanischen Sprachen, 229-255. Paderborn: Schöningh.
Cited in:
- Universal #119: If NP-internal constituents agree in two categories these will most likely be number and gender or number and
- Universal #120: If NP-internal constituents agree in more than two categories, the maximum being four, those will always inclu
- Universal #179: There is a hierarchy: Number > Gender > Case, such that if some target agrees in one category on the hierarchy
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1054: If there is agreement within NPs, there is, almost certainly, also agreement within clauses.
- Universal #1055: If there is agreement within clauses, agreement is likelier to be used than not to be used within NPs.
- Universal #1056: If determiners and modifiers agree both with head nouns, head nouns do not agree with attributive nouns, and v
- Universal #1057: If determiners agree within NPs, modifiers are likelier also to agree than not to agree.
- Universal #1058: If verbs agree in Number, they are very likely to agree in Person.
- Universal #1059: If verbs agree in Person, they are even likelier also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1060: If verbs agree in Gender, they are very likely also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1061: If verbs agree in Person, they are likelier not to agree than to agree in Gender.
- Universal #1062: If verbs agree in Gender, they are likelier to agree than not to agree in Person.
- Universal #1063: If NP-internal constituents agree in only a single category, this will not be Definiteness; it will most likel
- Universal #1064: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if NP-constituents agree in Number, cla
- Universal #1065: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if clause-constituents agree in Number,
- Universal #1126: If predicates can incorporate their arguments (i.e., verbs their subjects and objects), then head nouns can in
- Universal #1127: If nouns for alienable possession can incorporate their possessive pronouns, then nouns for inalienable posses
- Universal #1128: If nominal subjects can be incorporated into verbs, then nominal non-subjects can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1129: If pronominal objects can be incorporated, then possessor pronouns can also be incorporated;if possessor prono
- Universal #1130: If nouns can be incorporated, then pronouns can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1131: When nouns and pronouns can be incorporated, they have a special incorporated form (uninflected in the case of
- Universal #1132: If subjects and objects can be incorporated into verbs, then they are not case-marked when occurring absolutel
- Universal #1133: If there is incorporation, then the syntactic relations between the complex of incorporated and incorporator a
- Universal #1134: If a 3rd person pronoun can be incorporated when a corresponding absolute noun is present, then it can also be
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #39: nominative (marking intransitive and transitive subject) as the morphologically marked case vis-à-vis (zero-ma
- Rara #41: stem suppletion of a noun ('man, person') essentially determined by number, with one stem used for all singula
- Rara #42: number suppletion of the indefinite pronoun, with the singular form identical to the numeral 'one' and (here
- Rara #83: some noun-phrase internal agreement but no agreement at clause level
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
(Re-)Introducing Suffixaufnahme. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 3-110.
Cited in:
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #18: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs in multi-level possessive constructions, it also occurs in single-l
- Universal #20: In all languages, if a nominal possessor carries external case, so does the pronominal one.
- Universal #21: In almost all languages if the internal case involved in Suffixaufnahme is a case other than that of the posse
- Universal #22: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs when the adnominal case is the same as the head case, then it also
- Universal #23: In all languages, the range of cases that can be marked on the head of a Suffixaufnahme construction may never
- Universal #24: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs with continuous NPs, it also occurs with discontinuous ones, if suc
- Universal #25: In all languages, if an adnominal nominal preceding the head shows Suffixaufnahme, so does an adnominal nomina
- Universal #26: In all languages that mark a constituent preposed to the noun for inflectional categories such as number, gend
- Universal #27: In Suffixaufnahme constructions the ligative (if there is one) is always ordered between the internal and exte
- Universal #28: In no language is there Präfixaufnahme involving a ligative.
- Universal #30: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has NP-internal attributive constituents outside this construction.
- Universal #31: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has other NP-internal attributive constituents showing agreement in
- Universal #32: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the internal case occurring without the external case.
- Universal #33: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the external case occurring without the internal case.
- Universal #34: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has affix sequences outside the construction.
- Universal #35: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then adjectives agree with their heads in the same category.
- Universal #36: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it will also have at least one of the following NP-internal case marking pat
- Universal #37: If Suffixaufnahme is historically preceded by a different construction, one possibility for that construction
- Universal #38: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in headed and headless NPs at one time and at some later time it has Suf
- Universal #42: If a language has Suffixaufnahme at one time and at some later point it does not, one possible successor const
- Universal #199: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are separable from the head noun.
- Universal #200: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are independent morphemes.
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #375: It is impossible for minimal case systems to include, in addition to the basic general case, only a single fur
- Universal #461: In a language, all (or almost all) verbs with the general meaning ‘to create’ or ‘to destroy’ are transitive v
- Universal #627: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has verb-initial or verb-final constituent order.
- Universal #635: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has agglutinative nominal inflection.
- Universal #636: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has blurred word-class distinction between nouns and adjectives.
- Universal #637: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has non-configurational (“flat”) syntax.
- Universal #638: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then (perhaps) it is predominantly of ergative or other non-accusative align
- Universal #919: As the number of contrastive segments in a language increases, the average length of a word will decrease.
- Rara #5: a sizable inventory of basic smell terms, i.e., one with more than two or three items
- Rara #30: case distinction exclusively by tone
- Rara #87: Suffixaufnahme in more or less prototypical form, i.e., with a noun in an attributive case (genitive and/or o
Kollekcija utverzdenij o korreljacii zvuka i znacimoj formy. [A catalogue of allegations concerning the co-variation of sound and meaningful form.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 1996-2: 90-104.
Cited in:
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #255: If there exists a regular number distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily present in the pro
- Universal #361: Words tend to be longer than one syllable in transpositive [free word order] languages and to be monosyllabic
- Universal #362: The extent of “material“ articulation, pertaining in particular to (a) the elaboration of sound systems, (b) t
- Universal #363: (a)The utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from the chest (as in aspirates, affricates,
- Universal #364: In flective and introflective languages word forms tend to be between two and three syllables long, agglutinat
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #367: Derivational affixes tend to have a more complex syllabic structure in agglutinative languages than in flectiv
- Universal #368: Whereas the phonological structure of affixes is very similar to the structure of stems in the agglutinative t
- Universal #369: Typically, agglutinative languages, where stems and affixes are bound together more loosely than in flective a
- Universal #370: In agglutinative languages casual or fast speech shows less phonological deletion, fusion, and weakening than
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #372: In a Verb Phrase, main stress should be to the right of Verb in VO languages and to its left in OV languages [
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #966: The more distinct the definite article form is from demonstratives, the more likely its position relative to t
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #66: dual with 1st person exclusive but not with 1st person inclusive
- Rara #73: duals up and down the referential hierarchy (ignoring INCL/EXCL) PRONOUNS NOUNS1ST 2ND 3RD (a)+DU-------
The co-variation of phonology with morphology and syntax: A hopeful history. Linguistic Typology 2: 195-230.
Cited in:
- Universal #31: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has other NP-internal attributive constituents showing agreement in
- Universal #35: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then adjectives agree with their heads in the same category.
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #186: If there are declension classes (with different classes of nouns taking different exponents of case-number), t
- Universal #196: OV languages tend to have simple syllable structure.
- Universal #207: VO languages tend to have complex syllable structure.
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #361: Words tend to be longer than one syllable in transpositive [free word order] languages and to be monosyllabic
- Universal #362: The extent of “material“ articulation, pertaining in particular to (a) the elaboration of sound systems, (b) t
- Universal #363: (a)The utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from the chest (as in aspirates, affricates,
- Universal #364: In flective and introflective languages word forms tend to be between two and three syllables long, agglutinat
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #367: Derivational affixes tend to have a more complex syllabic structure in agglutinative languages than in flectiv
- Universal #368: Whereas the phonological structure of affixes is very similar to the structure of stems in the agglutinative t
- Universal #369: Typically, agglutinative languages, where stems and affixes are bound together more loosely than in flective a
- Universal #370: In agglutinative languages casual or fast speech shows less phonological deletion, fusion, and weakening than
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #372: In a Verb Phrase, main stress should be to the right of Verb in VO languages and to its left in OV languages [
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #654: Unlimited consonant clustering correlates with VS order, limitations on consonant clustering correlate with SV
- Universal #655: The consonant-vowel ratio is comparatively high in polysynthetic languages, where morphemes are comparatively
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #659: The probability of homophony is inversely related to the number of principal phonemes and to the length of seq
- Universal #675: See Graphics
- Universal #713: When stem-suffix combinations are morphologically less cohesive (i.e. agglutinative), words are given unity by
- Universal #890: If a language is agglutinative, then accent is primarily pitch.If a language is flexive, then the accent is pr
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #893: Iambic vs. Troachaic phrase accent and its many correlatesSee Graphics
- Universal #894: Iambic vs. Trochaic languagesSee Graphics
- Universal #895: See Graphics
- Universal #919: As the number of contrastive segments in a language increases, the average length of a word will decrease.
- Universal #1376: A lexically distinct form of verb HAVE is generally missing in verb peripheral languages (i.e. SOV, VOS). That
- Rara #49: an extra-large case inventory, of above 20 cases
- Rara #87: Suffixaufnahme in more or less prototypical form, i.e., with a noun in an attributive case (genitive and/or o
The Maltese article: Language-particulars and universals. Rivista di Linguistica 8: 183-212.
Cited in:
- Universal #208: OV languages are characterized by pitch accent.VO languages tend to have stress accent accompanied by reductio
- Universal #255: If there exists a regular number distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily present in the pro
- Universal #361: Words tend to be longer than one syllable in transpositive [free word order] languages and to be monosyllabic
- Universal #362: The extent of “material“ articulation, pertaining in particular to (a) the elaboration of sound systems, (b) t
- Universal #363: (a)The utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from the chest (as in aspirates, affricates,
- Universal #364: In flective and introflective languages word forms tend to be between two and three syllables long, agglutinat
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #367: Derivational affixes tend to have a more complex syllabic structure in agglutinative languages than in flectiv
- Universal #368: Whereas the phonological structure of affixes is very similar to the structure of stems in the agglutinative t
- Universal #369: Typically, agglutinative languages, where stems and affixes are bound together more loosely than in flective a
- Universal #370: In agglutinative languages casual or fast speech shows less phonological deletion, fusion, and weakening than
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #372: In a Verb Phrase, main stress should be to the right of Verb in VO languages and to its left in OV languages [
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #891: OV languages are often mora-counting, and VO languages are syllable-counting.
- Universal #892: OV languages tend to have suffixes and VO languages prefixes.
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #966: The more distinct the definite article form is from demonstratives, the more likely its position relative to t
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #66: dual with 1st person exclusive but not with 1st person inclusive
- Rara #73: duals up and down the referential hierarchy (ignoring INCL/EXCL) PRONOUNS NOUNS1ST 2ND 3RD (a)+DU-------
On Greenberg 45, mostly. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/20: 81-111.
Cited in:
- Universal #119: If NP-internal constituents agree in two categories these will most likely be number and gender or number and
- Universal #120: If NP-internal constituents agree in more than two categories, the maximum being four, those will always inclu
- Universal #179: There is a hierarchy: Number > Gender > Case, such that if some target agrees in one category on the hierarchy
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1054: If there is agreement within NPs, there is, almost certainly, also agreement within clauses.
- Universal #1055: If there is agreement within clauses, agreement is likelier to be used than not to be used within NPs.
- Universal #1056: If determiners and modifiers agree both with head nouns, head nouns do not agree with attributive nouns, and v
- Universal #1057: If determiners agree within NPs, modifiers are likelier also to agree than not to agree.
- Universal #1058: If verbs agree in Number, they are very likely to agree in Person.
- Universal #1059: If verbs agree in Person, they are even likelier also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1060: If verbs agree in Gender, they are very likely also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1061: If verbs agree in Person, they are likelier not to agree than to agree in Gender.
- Universal #1062: If verbs agree in Gender, they are likelier to agree than not to agree in Person.
- Universal #1063: If NP-internal constituents agree in only a single category, this will not be Definiteness; it will most likel
- Universal #1064: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if NP-constituents agree in Number, cla
- Universal #1065: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if clause-constituents agree in Number,
- Universal #1126: If predicates can incorporate their arguments (i.e., verbs their subjects and objects), then head nouns can in
- Universal #1127: If nouns for alienable possession can incorporate their possessive pronouns, then nouns for inalienable posses
- Universal #1128: If nominal subjects can be incorporated into verbs, then nominal non-subjects can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1129: If pronominal objects can be incorporated, then possessor pronouns can also be incorporated;if possessor prono
- Universal #1130: If nouns can be incorporated, then pronouns can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1131: When nouns and pronouns can be incorporated, they have a special incorporated form (uninflected in the case of
- Universal #1132: If subjects and objects can be incorporated into verbs, then they are not case-marked when occurring absolutel
- Universal #1133: If there is incorporation, then the syntactic relations between the complex of incorporated and incorporator a
- Universal #1134: If a 3rd person pronoun can be incorporated when a corresponding absolute noun is present, then it can also be
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #39: nominative (marking intransitive and transitive subject) as the morphologically marked case vis-à-vis (zero-ma
- Rara #41: stem suppletion of a noun ('man, person') essentially determined by number, with one stem used for all singula
- Rara #42: number suppletion of the indefinite pronoun, with the singular form identical to the numeral 'one' and (here
- Rara #83: some noun-phrase internal agreement but no agreement at clause level
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
More and less trouble for Greenberg 45. EUROTYP Working Papers VII/23: 87-107.
Cited in:
- Universal #119: If NP-internal constituents agree in two categories these will most likely be number and gender or number and
- Universal #120: If NP-internal constituents agree in more than two categories, the maximum being four, those will always inclu
- Universal #179: There is a hierarchy: Number > Gender > Case, such that if some target agrees in one category on the hierarchy
- Universal #365: Inflectional affixes tend to be longer in agglutinative languages than in flective languages.
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #406: If a language is (to an extent) agglutinating, at least some of its inflections can be used on members of more
- Universal #407: If a language uses at least some of its inflections cross-categorially, the language is agglutinating at least
- Universal #477: As far as Case is concerned, cumulative exponents (and sensitive separatist exponents) appear to limit the num
- Universal #513: No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #563: If the dual extends to non-pronominal agreement forms, it also extends to personal pronouns and nouns.
- Universal #564: If there is a dual with nouns other than those denoting natural pairs, there will be one with natural-pair nou
- Universal #565: If a language knows a Duo-Paucal, it will also contrast a general Paucal with a Multitudinal.
- Universal #566: If the Dual extends to nouns, it also extends to pronouns.
- Universal #567: If 3rd Person differentiates a Dual, so does 2nd, and vice versa.
- Universal #568: If 2nd and 3rd Person differentiate a Dual, so does (with more than chance frequency) 1st (but not vice versa)
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #967: If articles co-occur with possessive determiners, then demonstratives do so, too.
- Universal #1054: If there is agreement within NPs, there is, almost certainly, also agreement within clauses.
- Universal #1055: If there is agreement within clauses, agreement is likelier to be used than not to be used within NPs.
- Universal #1056: If determiners and modifiers agree both with head nouns, head nouns do not agree with attributive nouns, and v
- Universal #1057: If determiners agree within NPs, modifiers are likelier also to agree than not to agree.
- Universal #1058: If verbs agree in Number, they are very likely to agree in Person.
- Universal #1059: If verbs agree in Person, they are even likelier also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1060: If verbs agree in Gender, they are very likely also to agree in Number.
- Universal #1061: If verbs agree in Person, they are likelier not to agree than to agree in Gender.
- Universal #1062: If verbs agree in Gender, they are likelier to agree than not to agree in Person.
- Universal #1063: If NP-internal constituents agree in only a single category, this will not be Definiteness; it will most likel
- Universal #1064: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if NP-constituents agree in Number, cla
- Universal #1065: For languages which have agreement both within clauses and within NPs, if clause-constituents agree in Number,
- Universal #1126: If predicates can incorporate their arguments (i.e., verbs their subjects and objects), then head nouns can in
- Universal #1127: If nouns for alienable possession can incorporate their possessive pronouns, then nouns for inalienable posses
- Universal #1128: If nominal subjects can be incorporated into verbs, then nominal non-subjects can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1129: If pronominal objects can be incorporated, then possessor pronouns can also be incorporated;if possessor prono
- Universal #1130: If nouns can be incorporated, then pronouns can also be incorporated.
- Universal #1131: When nouns and pronouns can be incorporated, they have a special incorporated form (uninflected in the case of
- Universal #1132: If subjects and objects can be incorporated into verbs, then they are not case-marked when occurring absolutel
- Universal #1133: If there is incorporation, then the syntactic relations between the complex of incorporated and incorporator a
- Universal #1134: If a 3rd person pronoun can be incorporated when a corresponding absolute noun is present, then it can also be
- Universal #1135: If a language has the conception of an Duo-Paucal, it will have the conception of an Ambal.
- Universal #1721: If possessive determiners co-occur with definite articles, then nominal possessives do so, too.
- Universal #1722: If possessive determiners co-occur with demonstratives, then nominal possessives co-occur with definite articl
- Universal #1723: If indefinite articles co-occur with possessives, then definite articles do so, too.
- Universal #1744: The fact that pronominal heads do not take the definite article is a very widespread and possibly universal p
- Rara #39: nominative (marking intransitive and transitive subject) as the morphologically marked case vis-à-vis (zero-ma
- Rara #41: stem suppletion of a noun ('man, person') essentially determined by number, with one stem used for all singula
- Rara #42: number suppletion of the indefinite pronoun, with the singular form identical to the numeral 'one' and (here
- Rara #83: some noun-phrase internal agreement but no agreement at clause level
- Rara #122: a definite article formally distinct from (one form or another of) any kind of pronoun – demonstrative, person
The uneven distribution of genders over numbers: Greenberg Nos. 37 and 45. Linguistic Typology 1: 53-101.
Cited in:
- Universal #93: IF a language has pronominal gender in the 2nd person singular, THEN it has a greater probability of having th
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #520: If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the s
- Universal #523: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal adjective agrees with the noun, so does the a
- Universal #583: In languages with Gender distinctions in the Singular, the existence of a Gender distinction in 1st and /or 2n
- Universal #584: In languages without Gender distinctions in the Singular, for any one non-Singular number, the existence of a
- Universal #964: If the numeral ‘one’ turns into anything, it becomes an indefinite article (and/or pronoun), the reverse is no
- Universal #1376: A lexically distinct form of verb HAVE is generally missing in verb peripheral languages (i.e. SOV, VOS). That
- Universal #2014: Suggested hierarchy of base types for diminutivisation and augmentativisation:Noun > Adjective, Verb > Adverb,
- Rara #5: a sizable inventory of basic smell terms, i.e., one with more than two or three items
- Rara #54: gender contrast (MASC/FEM) in personal pronouns for 2nd, 3rd, and sometimes also 1st plural and for 2nd singul
- Rara #57: a mixed (aka "common", "resolution", "indefinite") gender in 3rd person (probably also 2nd and 1st person) non
Double Case: Agreement by Suffixaufnahme. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #16: In almost all instances of Suffixaufnahme, the segmental marker of internal case is closer to the stem of the
- Universal #18: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs in multi-level possessive constructions, it also occurs in single-l
- Universal #20: In all languages, if a nominal possessor carries external case, so does the pronominal one.
- Universal #21: In almost all languages if the internal case involved in Suffixaufnahme is a case other than that of the posse
- Universal #22: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs when the adnominal case is the same as the head case, then it also
- Universal #23: In all languages, the range of cases that can be marked on the head of a Suffixaufnahme construction may never
- Universal #24: In all languages, if Suffixaufnahme occurs with continuous NPs, it also occurs with discontinuous ones, if suc
- Universal #25: In all languages, if an adnominal nominal preceding the head shows Suffixaufnahme, so does an adnominal nomina
- Universal #26: In all languages that mark a constituent preposed to the noun for inflectional categories such as number, gend
- Universal #27: In Suffixaufnahme constructions the ligative (if there is one) is always ordered between the internal and exte
- Universal #28: In no language is there Präfixaufnahme involving a ligative.
- Universal #30: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has NP-internal attributive constituents outside this construction.
- Universal #31: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has other NP-internal attributive constituents showing agreement in
- Universal #32: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the internal case occurring without the external case.
- Universal #33: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has the external case occurring without the internal case.
- Universal #34: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it also has affix sequences outside the construction.
- Universal #35: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then adjectives agree with their heads in the same category.
- Universal #36: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, it will also have at least one of the following NP-internal case marking pat
- Universal #37: If Suffixaufnahme is historically preceded by a different construction, one possibility for that construction
- Universal #38: If a language has Suffixaufnahme both in headed and headless NPs at one time and at some later time it has Suf
- Universal #42: If a language has Suffixaufnahme at one time and at some later point it does not, one possible successor const
- Universal #199: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are separable from the head noun.
- Universal #200: No set of case marking elements both participate in agreement and are independent morphemes.
- Universal #371: If a language has vowel harmony and perhaps other progressive phonological modifications, then basic word orde
- Universal #373: There is a positive correlation between agglutinative morphology and simple syllable structure (or at any rate
- Universal #374: There is a positive correlation between higher syllable-per-sentence and syllable-per word ratios, simpler (or
- Universal #375: It is impossible for minimal case systems to include, in addition to the basic general case, only a single fur
- Universal #461: In a language, all (or almost all) verbs with the general meaning ‘to create’ or ‘to destroy’ are transitive v
- Universal #627: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has verb-initial or verb-final constituent order.
- Universal #635: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has agglutinative nominal inflection.
- Universal #636: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has blurred word-class distinction between nouns and adjectives.
- Universal #637: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then it has non-configurational (“flat”) syntax.
- Universal #638: If a language has Suffixaufnahme, then (perhaps) it is predominantly of ergative or other non-accusative align
- Universal #919: As the number of contrastive segments in a language increases, the average length of a word will decrease.
- Rara #5: a sizable inventory of basic smell terms, i.e., one with more than two or three items
- Rara #30: case distinction exclusively by tone
- Rara #87: Suffixaufnahme in more or less prototypical form, i.e., with a noun in an attributive case (genitive and/or o
Double objects causatives. Studies in Language 19: 129-211.
Cited in:
- Universal #1631: There is no language where the double object causative would be the only possible causative construction.
- Universal #1632: If a language has the order VOS, OVS, OSV and has a double object construction, the patient in that clause sho
- Universal #1633: If the language has the basic order “topic-before-focus”, then the secondary topic would precede the focus. Co
- Universal #1634: If the language has the basic order “focus-before-topic”, then the secondary topic would follow the focus. Cor
From Latin to Modern French with special consideration of Anglo-Norman: phonology and morphology. Manchester: Victoria University Press.
On synchronic and diachronic rules: French nasalization. Lingua 27: 184-197.
Doppelung (Reduplikation, Gemination) als eines der wichtigsten Bildungsmittel der Sprache, beleuchtet aus Sprachen aller Welttheile. Lemog & Detmold: Meyer.
Patterns of feature cooccurrence: The case of nasality. Coyote Papers 9: 98-115.
Word order universals and grammatical relations. In Peter Cole & Jerrold Sadock (eds.), Grammatical Relations (Syntax and Semantics, 8), 249-277. New York: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #490: In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is always one in which the subjec
- Universal #1187: Basic word orders OSV and OVS do not occur at all, while SVO, SOV, VSO, and VOS are all attested.
- Universal #1291: The Verb-Object Bonding Principle (VOB):The object of a transitive verb is more tightly bounded to the verb th
- Universal #1516: Subject-final languages are always verb-initial.
Two predicted universals in the semantics of space. Berkeley Linguistics Society 19: 479-489.
Genre grammatical et typologie linguistique. Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 82-1: 69-117.
Cited in:
- Universal #389: Languages without inflectional gender are agglutinating, and vice versa.
- Universal #589: If a language is of the agglutinative type, then it cannot have grammatical gender.
- Universal #590: ... eine höchst bemerkenswerte Erscheinung, die nur in flektierenden Sprachen anzutreffen ist, das ist das gra
Le developpement de l’article en roman. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique 37: 161-176.
Cited in:
- Universal #559: When languages with and without articles are in contact, it is more common for languages without an article to
- Universal #570: If there are high and low social varieties of a language and only one of them has an article, it will usually
- Universal #572: No (Indo-European) language does without both morphological case marking and articles.
- Universal #573: The definite article is not grammaticalized (made obligatory) in prepositionally marked NPs unless it is also
Introduction. In Eric J. Reuland & Alice G. B. ter Meulen (eds.) 1987, 1-20.
The Representation of (In)Definiteness. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
The noun phrase: A typological study of its form and structure. Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #447: If a language has Verb-final (rigid, or non-rigid) or free word order as (one of) its basic word order(s), the
- Universal #448: If a language has verb-initial word order, then it has prepositions or case prefixes.
- Universal #455: Personal possessive prefixes always imply a GN order, but not the converse; for personal possessive suffixes t
- Universal #526: In more than one language, and possibly in all, if the adnominal demonstrative co-occurs with a definite artic
When can a language have adjectives? An implicational universal. In Petra M. Vogel & Bernard Comrie (eds.), Approaches to the Typology of Word Classes (Empirical Approaches to Language Typology, 23), 217-257. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #5: If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise
- Universal #55: Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #57: When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more
- Universal #73: If the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, then the adjective follows the noun.
- Universal #114: There is a significant tendency for N Dem languages to have N Adj.
- Universal #1625: If a language has adjectives, then the numeral tends to modify the noun directly (that is, in most languages t
- Universal #1626: If a language has a distinct class of adjectives, then nouns are generally characterised by the feature [+ Sha
1983 Mid-America Linguistic Conference Papers. Boulder: University of Colorado.
Nasal vowels. Working Papers on Language Universals 12: 1-36.
Cited in:
- Universal #1791:
- Universal #1797: Nasals are deleted preferentially before consonants word-medially than word-finally (first before consonants a
- Universal #1799: Nasalization before intervocalic nasals was found to occur only if nasalization phenomena were already evident
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
A method for analyzing numerical systems. Word 6: 78-83.
Numeral classifiers and plural marking: An implicational universal. Working Papers on Language Universals 11: 1-22.
Sanders, Gerald A. (1972 [1978]). Adverbial constructions. Working Papers on Language Universals 10: 93-130. Reprinted in Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 4, 51-84.
The problem of noun incorporation in American languages. American Anthropologist 13: 250-283.
Cited in:
- Universal #188: If in a language there is incorporation of the nominal subject into the verb-form, then it has incorporation o
- Universal #1212: If a language incorporates nouns of only one semantic case, they will be patients of transitive verbs – whethe
- Universal #1491: Noun incorporation is possible for underlying objects only.
- Universal #1493: Incorporation takes place with the verbs denoting permanent and general activity (also typical or characterist
- Universal #1494: Objects that qualify as generic, non-referential, indefinite, inanimate/non-human, semantically dependent, pra
Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt.
Phoneme distribution and universals. In Greenberg (ed.) 1963, 61-72.
Cited in:
- Universal #656: There is an inverse relationship between the number of phonemes in a language and the average length of its mo
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
- Universal #958: In languages with both dissolvable and non-dissolvable medial clusters, the former will be significantly more
- Universal #959: The presence of C1C2 makes -C2C1 as likely or more likely than -C1C2
- Universal #960: For languages with phonemic stress, the presence of n unstressed syllables flanking a stressed syllable implie
The pragmatics of noun incorporation in Eastern Cushitic languages. In Frans Plank (ed.), Objects: Towards a Theory of Grammatical Relations. London: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #6: Where there is a case system, the only case which has only zero morphemes is the one which includes among its
- Universal #322: If nouns have a syntactic form of the accusative, then at least some of its allomorphs are non-zero.
- Universal #1494: Objects that qualify as generic, non-referential, indefinite, inanimate/non-human, semantically dependent, pra
On the grammaticalization of the verb say/thus: A typological study. Paper presented at the Symposium on Grammaticalization, University of Oregon.
[CHECK TITLE]. Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien 33: 361-389
Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde. Heidelberg: Winter.
Characteristics of vowel nasalization. Papers in Linguistics 5: 530-548.
Cited in:
- Universal #1605: Nasal harmony hierarchy:Vowels > Semivowels > Liquids > Fricatives > Obstruent Stops.This hierarchy reflects t
- Universal #1607: Low vowels are more likely to be regressively nasalized than high vowels.
- Universal #1608: There is a tendency for back vowels to nasalize more readily than front ones.
- Universal #1609: Hierarchy of regressive nasalization:N# > N[+continuant] > N[-continuant] > N[+syllabic]. If vowels are nasali
- Universal #1610: Hierarchy of nasalization spread:vowels, h, glottal stop > oral glides > liquids.
- Universal #1612: Permeability of classes of consonants to nasalization:vowels > {[h], glottal stop (=laryngeal segments)} > w,
A cross-language study of vowel nasalization. Ohio State University Working Papers in Linguistics 15: 190-221.
Cited in:
- Universal #1794: The development of distinctive nasalization is preferred first in stressed/tonic syllables.
- Universal #1799: Nasalization before intervocalic nasals was found to occur only if nasalization phenomena were already evident
- Universal #1800: Tautosyllablic distinctive nasalization developed sooner word-finally than in preconsonantal position.
- Universal #1801: In preconsonantal position distinctive nasalization develops preferentially before continuants.
- Universal #1866: Vowel Height Parameter: The development of some or all of the distinctive nasal processes occur preferentially
General aspects of relative clause formation. Working Papers on Language Universals 6: 139-171.
The VP-constituent of SVO languages. Working Papers on Language Universals 8: 21-51. (Published also in John P. Kimball (ed.), 1979, Syntax and Semantics 1, 213-235. New York: Seminar Press.)
Suffixaufnahme and related case marking patterns in Australian languages. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 339-362.
Die nominale Determination in den indogermanischen Sprachen. Zeitschrift fuer vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen 63: 145-167.
Typological considerations of vowel quality systems. Working Papers on Language Universals 1: 1-40.
Cited in:
- Universal #883: A high back unrounded vowel implies a high front unrounded vowel.
- Universal #884: A lower high back rounded vowel implies a high or lower high front vowel.
- Universal #885: Maximal back vowel height is never higher than maximal front vowel height, although the converse may be true.
- Universal #886: All languages have a high or a lower high front vowel.
- Universal #887: A front rounded vowel implies a front unrounded vowel at the same tongue height.
- Universal #888: There are no languages with rounded front vowels but without rounded back vowels.
- Universal #889: A back unrounded vowel implies a front unrounded vowel at the same tongue height.
Direct/indirect object word order: A cross-linguistic analysis. Working Papers on Language Universals 18: 117-164.
Cited in:
- Universal #484: If the direct object is morphologically marked in a sentence, then the indirect object is also morphologically
- Universal #485: 80 % of the languages in Sedlak’s sample which indicate the direct or indirect object by word order also indic
- Universal #486: In two-thirds of the languages sampled, the indirect object is marked either extra- or intra-verbally when it
- Universal #487: In variable order SVO languages, where indirect-object marking is optional, the indirect object is contiguous
A dimensional view on numeral systems. In Croft, Denning, & Kemmer (eds.) 1990, 187-208.
Verojatnostnye obosnovanija v komparativistike . [Propability Foundations in Comparative Linguistics.] Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #241: If there is segmental relation marking, word order is free, and vice versa.OR equivalently:If there is no segm
- Universal #259: In ergative and active languages only secondary topicalization, by means of changing the word order in the sen
- Universal #571: If both present and past tenses have completely identical stems, they must have means of differentiation.
- Universal #1114: If in a language perfective aspect is expressed by help of preverbs then it is highly probable that in that la
- Universal #1353: Numeral classifiers occur in the languages where plural is weakly developed.
- Universal #1431: If in a language there are no prefixes, then there will be inflectional (i.e. not prepositional) local cases.
- Universal #1432: If a language lacks preverbs, it must have special verb bases denoting direction.
- Universal #1433: If a language lacks the category of gender, then hydronyms always contain categorial markers.
- Universal #1434: If a language has possessive suffixes on nouns, most commonly it will lack overt copula form (of 'to be') in t
- Universal #1435: The more developed a case system is, the less is its system of verbal tenses.
- Universal #1436: If in a language the perfect lacks auxiliary verb, then the auxiliary verb does not have present tense form.
- Universal #1437: The presence of the perfect almost always implies the presence of the plusquamperfect.
- Universal #1438: A large number of tense oppositions correlates with the absence of aspect differentiation.
- Universal #1439: There is a correlation between the development of continuous tenses and absence of aspect differentiation.
- Universal #1440: If in a language the adjective follows the noun, there is an overt copula form (of 'to be') in the present ten
- Universal #1441: Nominal gender in plural suffixes is less distinct.
Stop and fricative systems: A discussion of paradigmatic gaps and the question of language sampling. Working Papers in Language Universals 17: 1-32.
Cited in:
- Universal #923: The absence of the voiceless stop /p/ from the labial group presupposes the presence of the corresponding voic
- Universal #1088: If a language does not have a full six-position stop paradigm (/p, t, k, b, d, g/), the gaps are most likely t
- Universal #1089: /t/ and /k/ are present in every language which has a voicing contrast in stops.
An Areal-Typological Study of American Indian Languages North of Mexico. (North-Holland Linguistic Series, 20.) Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Passives and related constructions: A prototype analysis. Language 61: 821-848.
Voice parameters. In Kulikov & Vater (eds.) 1998, 117-138.
Approaches to Language Typology. Oxford: Clarendon.
From anaphoric pronoun to grammatical agreement marker: Why objects don’t make it. Folia Linguistica 33: 225-251.
Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In R. M. W. Dixon (ed.), Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages, 112-171. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies
Cited in:
- Universal #1: Grammatical systems with ergativity tend to have ergative-accusative splits.
- Universal #217: This hierarchy expresses the semantic naturalness for a lexically specified noun phrase to function as agent
- Universal #591: Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked er
Skalicka, Vladimír (1951 [1979]). Typ cestiny. Praha. Partly translated as ‘Das Erscheinungsbild der Sprachen’ in Skalicka (1979), Typologische Studien, 21-58. Braunschweig: Vieweg.
Smith, Adam (1761 [1983]). Considerations concerning the First Formation of Languages, and the Different Genius of Original and Compounded Langages. In The Philological Miscellany [….], Volume I, 440-479. Republished in the 3rd and subsequent editions of the Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1767ff. Reprinted in and cited after the Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith , vol. IV: Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, ed. by J. C. Bryce, 201-226. Oxford: Clarendon.
The plurality split. Chicago Linguistic Society 10: 657-671.
Cited in:
- Universal #916: The Animacy hierarchy:speaker (1st person pronouns) > addressee (2nd person pronouns) > kin > rational > human
- Universal #917: Whenever there is a plurality split in lexical nouns, the split in the 3rd person pronoun (if there is one) wi
- Universal #982: When the plural allomorphs are morphologically conditioned in a language, and the conditioning depends on whet
- Universal #983: Irregular plural formation is more likely to occur with nouns high in the split plurality hierarchy.
Nekotorye semanticeskie universalii v sisteme licnyx mestoimenij. [Some semantic universals in systems of personal pronouns.] In Vardul’ (ed.), 84-102.
Cited in:
- Universal #716: If there is any grammatical opposition in the forms of Dual, then there is the same opposition in the forms of
- Universal #1208: In all languages, there are never more person distinctions within possessive pronouns and possessive affixes t
- Universal #1443: Every one of the seven metapersons, i.e. 'speaker', 'hearer', 'non-participant', 'speaker + hearer(s)', 'speak
- Universal #1444: In no language are there pronominal forms differentiating the number of elements within a metaperson, e.g. spe
- Universal #1445: In an overwhelming majority of languages, there is a special form to denote the metaperson 'speaker'.
- Universal #1446: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker', it cannot include among its meanings the foll
- Universal #1447: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker', it cannot include amo
- Universal #1448: In all languages, if the metaperson 'speaker' is not the only meaning denoted by a certain pronominal form, th
- Universal #1449: In an overwhelming majority of languages, there is a special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer' in the sin
- Universal #1450: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer' in the singular, it cannot denote the metaperso
- Universal #1451: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some pronominal form denotes the metaperson 'hearer' in the singu
- Universal #1452: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if the metaperson 'hearer' in the singular is not the only meaning e
- Universal #1453: In no language is there a special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular.
- Universal #1454: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular, then this form includes am
- Universal #1455: In all languages, if there is a certain form to denote the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular, it cannot
- Universal #1456: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular, it
- Universal #1457: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular (and consequently, th
- Universal #1458: In all languages, there is a special form to denote the metaperson 'non-participant'.
- Universal #1459: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'non-participant' in the singula
- Universal #1460: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if the metaperson 'non-participant' in the singular is not the only
- Universal #1461: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'non-participant' in the non-sin
- Universal #1462: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if the metaperson 'non-participant' in the non-singular is not the o
- Universal #1463: In no language is there a special form to denote a metaperson 'speaker+hearer(s)'.
- Universal #1464: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s)', it must also denote the metaperso
- Universal #1465: If some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s)', then(a) in some languages this form can also denote
- Universal #1466: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s)' and/or 'sp
- Universal #1467: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s)' and/or 'sp
- Universal #1468: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if the metapersons 'speaker + hearer(s)' and 'speaker + hearer(s) +
- Universal #1469: If some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + non-participant(s)', then(a) in some languages it cannot includ
- Universal #1470: In all languages, if the metaperson 'speaker + non-participant(s)' is not the only meaning of some form, then
- Universal #1471: In an overwhelming majority of languages, there is no special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-p
- Universal #1472: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)'
- Universal #1473: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)'
- Universal #1474: In all languages, if the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)' is not the only meaning denoted by some f
- Universal #1475: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)', then it cannot include
- Universal #1476: In an overwhelming majority of languages, there is no special form to denote the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(
- Universal #1477: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s) + non-parti
- Universal #1478: If some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s) + non-participant(s)' then:(a) in some languages it a
- Universal #1479: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s) + non-parti
- Universal #1480: In an overwhelming majority of languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s) + non-parti
- Universal #1481: In all languages, if the metaperson 'speaker + hearer(s) + non-participant(s)' is not the only meaning of a ce
- Universal #1482: If in a language there are no special forms distinguishing the metapersons 'speaker' and 'speaker + hearer(s)'
- Universal #1483: If a language lacks a form with the meaning 'speaker + hearer(s)' and/or 'speaker + non-participant (s)' and/o
- Universal #1484: If a language has a special form with the meaning 'speaker + non-participant(s)' (i.e. "we exclusive") then it
- Universal #1485: If a language lacks a form with the meaning 'hearer' and/or 'hearers' and/or 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)',
- Universal #1486: If a language has a special form with the meaning 'hearers' and/or 'hearer(s) + non-participant(s)', then it h
- Universal #1487: If in a language there is a pronominal form denoting the dual of the metapersons 'hearer', 'hearer + non-parti
- Universal #1488: If in a language there is a pronominal form denoting the trial of the metapersons 'hearer' and 'hearer(s) + no
- Universal #1489: If in a language there is an opposition of the metapersons 'speaker + hearer(s)' and 'speaker + non-participan
- Universal #1490: If in a language there is an opposition of the metapersons 'speaker + hearer' and 'speaker + non-participant'
Cardinal number systems. Chicago Linguistic Society 12: 594-609.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #540: If there are numerals in which the expression of the multiplier follows that of the multiplicand, the language
- Universal #704: In most languages the base number is put before the unit, and in general a higher number before a lower, when
- Universal #1515: In languages whose numeral systems consists of less than five numerals, the highest numeral is likely to be de
A Dissertation on Natural Phonology. Bloomington: Indiana Linguistics Club.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #887: A front rounded vowel implies a front unrounded vowel at the same tongue height.
- Universal #962: Vowel harmony and vowel reduction typically do not co-occur.
- Universal #1674: If a language has palatalized a consonant before [e], then it must necessarily have previously palatalized thi
Rhyme and the holistic evolution of English. Handout of paper read at the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Amsterdam.
The comparative compared. Journal of Semantics 3: 143-182.
Cited in:
- Universal #984: If a language has a separative comparative, then it is SOV.
- Universal #985: If a language has an allative comparative, then it is VSO.
- Universal #986: If a language has a locative comparative, then it is either SOV or VSO.
- Universal #987: If a language has an exceed comparative, then it is SVO.
- Universal #988: Languages with a separative comparative are languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #989: Languages with an allative comparative are languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #990: Languages with a locative comparative are languages with absolute simultaneous deranking and total identity de
- Universal #991: Languages with an adverbial comparative are languages with absolute deranking and total identity deletion.
- Universal #992: Languages with an exceed comparative are languages with conditional deranking and limited identity deletion.
- Universal #993: Languages with a conjoined comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and no identi
- Universal #994: Languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking typically prefer SOV word order.
- Universal #995: Languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking typically prefer VSO word order.
- Universal #996: Languages with conditional deranking typically prefer SVO word order.
- Universal #997: Languages with absolute consecutive deranking have either SOV or VSO .
- Universal #998: Languages with a particle comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and with total
Comparison and Universal Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cited in:
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #213: If a language has a derived-case comparative, then that language is balancing.
- Universal #214: If a language has a fixed-case comparative, then that language is deranking.
- Universal #413: If a language is postpositional, Gender affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.If a language has prefixed Gende
- Universal #414: If a language has SOV, Gender affixes on N (if any) are suffixed. If a language has prefixed Gender affixes, i
- Universal #988: Languages with a separative comparative are languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #989: Languages with an allative comparative are languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking and total i
- Universal #990: Languages with a locative comparative are languages with absolute simultaneous deranking and total identity de
- Universal #991: Languages with an adverbial comparative are languages with absolute deranking and total identity deletion.
- Universal #992: Languages with an exceed comparative are languages with conditional deranking and limited identity deletion.
- Universal #993: Languages with a conjoined comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and no identi
- Universal #994: Languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking typically prefer SOV word order.
- Universal #995: Languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking typically prefer VSO word order.
- Universal #996: Languages with conditional deranking typically prefer SVO word order.
- Universal #997: Languages with absolute consecutive deranking have either SOV or VSO .
- Universal #998: Languages with a particle comparative are languages with no deranking (i.e. they are balancing) and with total
- Universal #999: If a language has posterior consecutive deranking and its word order is SVO, then it has conditional deranking
- Universal #1000: If a language has posterior consecutive deranking and its word order is VSO, then it has absolute deranking.
- Universal #1001: If a language has an Exceed-1 (i.e. a serial) Comparative, it is verby. If an Exceed language verby, it has an
- Universal #1012: If a language has an Exceed-2 Comparative or an Exceed-3 Comparative, it is nouny. If an Exceed-language is no
- Universal #1302: If a language is postpositional, indefiniteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1303: If a language has SOV, indefiniteness affixes on N (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1305: If a language has SOV, nominalizing affixes on N (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than chance f
- Universal #1306: If a language has SOV, definiteness affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1307: If a language is postpositional, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with considerably greater than c
- Universal #1308: If a language has SOV, plural affixes on noun (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than chance fr
- Universal #1309: If a language is postpositional, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed.
- Universal #1310: If a language has SOV, mood affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1311: If a language is postpositional, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with overwhelmingly greater than
- Universal #1312: If a language has SOV, tense affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with greater than chance frequency.
- Universal #1314: Valence affixes on verb (i.e. intransitive/transitive/ditransitive affixes), if there are any, are suffixed wi
- Universal #1315: If a language has SOV, causative affixes on verb (if any) are suffixed with more than chance frequency.
- Universal #1688: There are no languages in which deranking under non-identity of subjects is possible while at the same time de
- Universal #1689: No language permits conditional deranking under identity with a non-subject while at the same time forbidding
- Universal #1690: If an SOV language deranks its consecutive chains, it will derank anterior predicates.
- Universal #1691: If SVO languages or VSO languages derank their consecutive chains, it will derank posterior predicates.
- Universal #1692: If a language has anterior deranking (and is therefore typically SOV; see #1690), it has absolute deranking.
- Universal #1693: If a language has posterior consecutive deranking and its word order is SVO, then it has conditional deranking
- Universal #1694: If a language has posterior consecutive deranking and its word order is VSO, then it has absolute deranking.
- Universal #1695: Languages with absolute consecutive deranking have either SOV or VSO word order.
- Universal #1696: Languages with absolute anterior consecutive deranking typically have SOV word order.
- Universal #1697: Languages with absolute posterior consecutive deranking typically have VSO word order.
- Universal #1698: Languages which permit only conditional deranking of consecutive chains have posterior deranking and typically
- Universal #1746: There is more prefixing on verb than on noun. If a language has any prefixes on noun, it will also have prefix
- Universal #1747: If a language has person marking affixes on verb (direct object), they are prefixed with more than chance freq
A hierarchy of main predicate encoding. In Michel Kefer & Johan van der Auwera (eds.) 1992, 179-201.
Cited in:
- Universal #94: The (non)use of a copula conforms to a hierarchy of predication:Action word (verb) < Property word (adjective)
- Universal #145: SOV correlates positively with non-verbal status of predicative adjectives, whereas SVO and VSO have a tendenc
- Universal #146: Tendency: in SOV-languages adjectives can be the head of NPs whereas SVO-languages and VSO-languages tend to r
- Universal #147: If attributive adjectives have the form of relative clauses, there is a positive correlation with SVO.
- Universal #170: If a language has case affixes on nouns, they are almost always suffixed.
- Universal #180: Case-marking for subject vs. object correlates positively with SOV and negatively with SVO.
- Universal #181: An NP-conjunctive that has the same form as the comitative marker correlates positively with SVO, and negative
- Universal #182: If adnominal genitival complements are neither marked by case nor by coreference on the head-NP, there is a te
- Universal #911: The Verbalization Hierarchy of Intransitive Main Predicates:Semantic: (activity) > property > class > location
Intransitive Predication. Oxford: Clarendon.
Cited in:
- Universal #733: The Agreement Universal:If a language has person agreement in intransitive main clauses, this agreement will a
- Universal #734: The Auxiliary Universal:If a language allows independent, non-supported, encoding of predicates, this encoding
- Universal #735: The Zero Universal:If a language employs zero/nonverbal copula encoding at all, it will employ this strategy i
- Universal #736: The Zero Universal:If a language employs zero/nonverbal copula encoding for other sentence types than identity
- Universal #737: The Minimal Distribution of Zero Copulas:If a language allows a zero copula at all, it will minimally select t
- Universal #738: The Adjective-Nominal Universal:If predicate nominals are encoded verbally, then predicative adjectives are en
- Universal #739: The Adjective-Nominal Universal (alternative version):If predicative adjectives are encoded nonverbally, then
- Universal #740: The Human Propensity Universal:In a split-adjective language, human-propensity predicates will be encoded by t
- Universal #741: The Adjective Hierarchy:Human Propensity / Physical / Dimension, Colour / Value, Age, Form / Material, GenderT
- Universal #742: The Material-Gender Universal:In a split-adjective language, items which belong to the adjectival categories o
- Universal #743: The Universal of Adjectival V/N-Switching:In languages with verbal-nominal switching for adjectives, the nomin
- Universal #744: The Tendency of Adjectival N/L-Switching:In a language with nominal-locational switching for adjectives, the n
- Universal #745: The Adjective-Switch Universal:If the nominal strategy partakes in an Adjective-switch, and if that switch is
- Universal #746: The N/L-Switching Universal for Predicate Nominals:If a language has N/L-switching for predicate nominals, it
- Universal #747: The Nominal-Switch Universal (part 1):In cases where a nominal Nominal/Locational-switch is motivated by condi
- Universal #748: The Nominal-Switch Universal (part 2):In cases where a nominal Verbal/Nominal-switch is motivated by condition
- Universal #749: The Universal of Tense-Aspect Organization:If a language encodes a tense opposition in its verbal system, this
- Universal #750: The Universal of Tense-Aspect Organization:If a language encodes an aspectual opposition in its verbal system,
- Universal #751: The Universal of Nominal Merging*:A language may have nominal merging only if it allows nominal encoding of pr
- Universal #752: The Universal of Locational Merging:A language may have locational merging only if it allows locational encodi
- Universal #753: The Universal of Multiple N/L-Switching:In cases of conditioned multiple N/L-switching, the nominal strategy i
- Universal #754: The Multiple-Switch Universal:In a language with tense-induced M-switching, category switching (if any) is res
- Universal #801: The Tensedness Universals of Adjective Encoding:A. If a language is tensed, it will have nouny adjectives. If
- Universal #802: The Tensedness Universals of Adjective Encoding:B. If a language is non-tensed, it will have verby adjectives.
- Universal #1031: There are correlations between following parameters:VO word order, Non-tensedness, Non-casedness, WITH-Constru
- Universal #1032: There are correlations between following parameters:OV word order, Tensedness, Casedness, AND-Construction, Ab
- Universal #1695: Languages with absolute consecutive deranking have either SOV or VSO word order.
The typology of predicative possession. Handout at the 6th DGfSSummer School of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sprachwissenschaft held in Mainz, Germany, 31 August – 11 September 1998.
Cited in:
- Universal #94: The (non)use of a copula conforms to a hierarchy of predication:Action word (verb) < Property word (adjective)
- Universal #1110: If a language has a Locative Possessive, that language will have deranking of simultaneous sequences.
- Universal #1111: If a language has a Topic Possessive, that language will have backgrounding of simultaneous sequences.
- Universal #1112: If a language has a Comitative Possessive, that language will have predominant (or sometimes even exclusive)ba
- Universal #1657: If in a language finite and non-finite (attributive and/or argument) functions of converbs are equally marked
- Universal #1658: If a language is non-tensed, the nominal predicate does not require a copula.
The category AUX as a language universal. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 7-46.
Cited in:
- Universal #1386: No language with SVO or VSO basic order will have a clause final auxiliary.
- Universal #1387: No language with a traditional auxiliary verb which has subject agreement will not include it in the auxiliary
- Universal #1388: No language with a traditional auxiliary verb will exist in which the auxiliary does not take what is usually
- Universal #1389: No language with free word order will have a clause final auxiliary.
- Universal #1390: No language will exist where auxiliary does not potentially include tense; that is, in a sentence with tense a
An Encyclopedia of AUX: A Study of Cross-Linguistic Equivalence. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Lokalkasussysteme: Aspekte einer strukturellen Dynamik. (pro lingua, 13.) Wilhelmsfeld: Egert.
Cited in:
- Universal #190: If only some locational relations are expressed in a case system, they will always include simple location. Ne
- Universal #1215: If there are predominantly prepositions rather than postpositions, then there will not be an extensive system
- Universal #1216: Local cases are preferably expressed by suffixes, and never by infixes.
- Universal #1217: If there is an extensive system of local cases, then there will very likely also be numerous local postpositio
- Universal #1218: If there are local cases, then basic word order tends to be SVO or SOV.
- Universal #1219: Nouns denoting body parts are the preferred sources for the grammaticalization of local adpositions.
- Universal #1220: If there are (local) postpositions, then there will also be nominal case inflection (not necessarily including
- Universal #1221: If postpositions inflect for case, then nouns will also inflect for case.
- Universal #1222: If there are no local cases but non-local (grammatical, abstract) cases, then localization will preferably be
- Universal #1223: If a case is governed by a local postposition, then this case will preferably also be used to express possessi
- Universal #1224: If localization is expressed by adpositions, then there will also be nominal combinations for purposes of loca
- Universal #1225: Systems of local cases prototypically include a locative (‘where’ case), an allative (‘where to’ case), and an
- Universal #1226: If there are local cases, then there are very likely also other expressions for localization, viz. local adpos
- Universal #1227: If there is a local case other than locative, then there will also be a locative.
- Universal #1228: Non-differentiation or syncretism of locative and ablative or of allative and ablative are less likely than no
- Universal #1229: If there is a terminative (‘up to where’) or a prosecutive (‘where to’), then there will be an allative.
- Universal #1230: If there are cases differentiating where to relations other than terminative or prosecutive, then there will v
- Universal #1231: If there are exterior local cases, then there will also be interior local cases.
- Universal #1232: If there are superior and/or inferior local cases, then there will also be exterior local cases.
- Universal #1233: If there are posterior local cases, then there will also be both superior and inferior local cases.
- Universal #1234: Diachronically, an undifferentiated locative (expressing where, whereto, wherefrom) retains the meaning of a w
- Universal #1235: Diachronically, when an allative loses its local meaning (or acquires additional, non-local meanings), it will
- Universal #1236: Diachronically, local cases tend to acquire temporal meanings; in particular, a terminative local case is pred
Stolz, Thomas (1999?). Ordinalia: Linguistisches Neuland. Ein Typologenblick auf die Beziehung zwischen Kardinalia und Ordinalia und die Sonderstellung von EINS und ERSTER. In Birgit Igla & Thomas Stolz (eds.), Festschrift für Norbert Boretzky zum 65. Geburtstag. Sofia [in press].
To be with X is to have X: comitatives, instrumentals, locative, and predicative possession. Linguistics 39-2: 321-350.
Cited in:
- Universal #1911: If a language keeps comitative and instrumental formally distinct and if one of the two forms part of the mode
- Universal #1912: If in a language the marker for instrumental forms part of the mode of expression of predicative possession, t
- Universal #1913: If in a language the grammatical expression of predicative possession requires the use of the marker of either
- Universal #1914: If a language allows for the marker of predicative possession to be part of the range of functions covered by
Agreement in South Asian languages. Keynote address delivered at International Dravidian Linguistics Association, Seminar on Agreement. Chennai, India.
Linguistic theory and syntactic typology: A proposal for a symbiotic relationship. In Ljudmila V. Khokhlova & Atil Sawani (eds.), Vaagbhaarati: Proceedings of the International Conference on South Asian Languages. 5-23. Moscow: Institute of Asian and African Languages, Moscow State University.
Cited in:
- Universal #45: If there is a construction in which the verb agrees with some member of the relational hierarchy Subject > DO
- Universal #1323: Monomorphemic reflexives can take long-distance antecedents whereas polymorphemic reflexives cannot.
- Universal #1345: If a language has a verbal reciprocal/reflexive, it must have an overt AGR marker.
- Universal #1376: A lexically distinct form of verb HAVE is generally missing in verb peripheral languages (i.e. SOV, VOS). That
The noun phrase. In Ferenc Kiefer & Katalin É. Kiss (eds), The Syntactic Structure of Hungarian (Syntax and Semantics, 27), 179-274. San-Diego: Academic Press.
Ob odnovremennom suscestvovanii fonem [f], [?], [x] v odnom jazyke. In Vardul’ (ed.) 1969, 127-128.
Refleksivnye mestoimenija v dagestanskix jazykax i tipologija refleksiva. [Reflexive pronouns in Daghestanian and typology of reflexives.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 1998-4: 35-57.
Geminates: A cross-linguistic examination. In Joel Ashmore Nevis, Gerald McMenamin, & Graham Thurgood (eds.), Papers in Honor of Frederick H. Brengelman, 129-139. Fresno: California State University.
Cited in:
- Universal #459: The presence of long consonants after long vowels implies the presence of long consonants after short vowels.
- Universal #471: If a language has long consonants, it has long consonants in intervocalic position.
- Universal #489: The presence of long affricates implies the presence of long stops. Further, in all but two instances there ar
Case agreement in Lithuanian. In Barlow & Ferguson (eds.) 1988, 181-200.
Basic Word Order: Functional Principles. London: Croom Helm.
Cited in:
- Universal #382: All languages have constructions whose function is to place topic, both old and new, before comment.
- Universal #1290: The Animated First Principle (AFP):In simple transitive clauses, the NP which is most animated will precede NP
- Universal #1291: The Verb-Object Bonding Principle (VOB):The object of a transitive verb is more tightly bounded to the verb th
On the origins of ergativity. In Frans Plank (ed.), Ergativity: Towards a Theory of Grammatical Relations, 385-404. London: Academic Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #521: Hierarchy of ergativity:In language L,conjunction reduction is ergative < coreferential deletion in purposive
- Universal #898: Provided there is actancy variation in terms of tense, accusative constructions will always be found in the fu
- Universal #1271: Ergative systems are found only in SOV and VSO languages. SVO languages are never ergative.
- Universal #1376: A lexically distinct form of verb HAVE is generally missing in verb peripheral languages (i.e. SOV, VOS). That
Parameters and effects of word order variation. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Zur allgemeinen Theorie der phonologischen Vokalsysteme. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 1: 39-67.
The possession cline in Japanese and other languages. In Hilary Chappell & William McGregor (eds.), The Grammar of Inalienability: A Typological Perspective on Body Part Terms and the Part-Whole Relation, 565-630. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #1588: Semantic scale of inalienable possession:kin terms and/or body parts > part-whole and/or spatial relations > c
- Universal #1592: Possession cline which represents the degree of closeness/attachedness – physical and/or psychological – betwe
- Universal #1598: There will be no language in which the linguistic distance between possessor and possessum is greater for the
Some sources of consonant gradation. Working Papers in Language Universals 2: C1-C23.
Cited in:
- Universal #1254: Sonants tend to participate in consonant gradation much more than other phonemes.
- Universal #1255: When consonant gradation plays a role in the grammar, it serves the function to identify nouns.
- Universal #1256: Front consonants are less prone to develop in accordance with consonant gradation than back consonants.
- Universal #1257: Anterior consonants are less likely to participate in consonant gradation than posterior consonants.
- Universal #1258: Labiovelar stops are less likely to participate in consonant gradation than other stops of the same series.
Ultan, Russell (1972[1978a]). The nature of future tenses. Working Papers in Language Universals 8: 55-100. Reprinted in and cited after Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 3, 83-124.
Some reflections on vowel harmony. Working Papers in Language Universals 12: 33-67.
Cited in:
- Universal #1259: The less sonorous a vowel (or class of vowels), the more prone it will be to assimilate; and conversely, the m
- Universal #1260: High vowels tend to assimilate more readily and earlier than low vowels.
- Universal #1261: Assimilation of low vowels implies prior assimilation of high vowels.
- Universal #1262: Unstressed vowels are more likely to assimilate than stressed vowels.
- Universal #1263: When an otherwise harmonizing unstressed vowel becomes stressed due to intonational factors, then it can no lo
- Universal #1264: The less the phonetic distance between opposing members of potential vowel grades, the more prone they will be
- Universal #1265: Assimilation of vowels with high tone implies assimilation of vowels with low tone.
- Universal #1266: Assimilation of fully voiced vowels implies assimilation of partially voiced or voiceless vowels.
- Universal #1267: Assimilation of vowels with normal duration implies assimilation of reduced vowels .
- Universal #1268: Assimilation of tense vowels implies assimilation of lax vowels.
- Universal #1269: Assimilation of front vowels implies assimilation of back vowels.
- Universal #1270: Assimilation of unrounded vowels implies assimilation of rounded vowels.
A typological view of metathesis. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 367-402.
Cited in:
- Universal #449: A genitive-marked constituent in a pronominally possessed construction implies genitive marking of the corresp
- Universal #450: A Gen N constituent order in a nominally possessed construction implies the same order in a pronominal (non-af
- Universal #451: A possessee marked for genitive implies a construction in which the possessor is so marked.
- Universal #452: A possessor marked for 3rd person implies a possessee so marked in the same construction.
- Universal #454: A free, less intimate possessor form may imply a bound, more intimate form, but not the converse.
- Universal #455: Personal possessive prefixes always imply a GN order, but not the converse; for personal possessive suffixes t
- Universal #456: An inalienably possessed, non-vocative noun does not necessarily imply that the corresponding vocative noun is
- Universal #460: The subject-marked possessor of a HAVE-construction implies a comitative-marked possessee.
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #665: Nonoccurrence of a rising terminal, higher pitched or special stress yes-no-question-contour implies postposit
- Universal #666: The presence of tag questions with nonrising (or higher pitched or stressed) contours implies also tag questio
- Universal #667: The presence of yes-no question inversion implies a basic order type in which subject precedes verb.
- Universal #668: Yes-no question inversion implies a resultant VSO order.In periphrastic constructions the finite auxiliary alw
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #670: While languages of all basic order types may have information-question-inversion, SOV languages are less likel
- Universal #671: Most question particles occur in sentence-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent) or in sentence-fina
- Universal #672: Question particles may co-occur with inversion in yes-no questions.
- Universal #673: Binary choice tags are almost always sentence final, multiple choice tags sentence initial.
- Universal #1003: Terminal intonations are almost universally low or falling for finality and assertion, and high or rising for
- Universal #1004: In patterned symbolic processes (particularly distance symbolism), vowel ablaut has the highest frequency of o
- Universal #1005: Front vowels predominantly correspond to diminutive and associated categories.
- Universal #1006: Voluntary metatheses imply non-phonological causes.
- Universal #1007: Resonance Hierarchy:vowel > semivowel > liquid > spirant > sibilant > nasal > stop.The more resonant a sound,
- Universal #1117: Wh-in-situ languages have special markings in yes-no questions, and languages with special markings in yes-no
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1391: Future tense markers may be less bound than present or past but never more so.
- Universal #1392: If the future is periphrastic, the auxiliary will always be a present tense or unmarked form.
- Universal #1393: Retrospective languages tend toward finer temporal gradation in the past than in the future and prospective la
- Universal #1394: In retrospective languages obligatory occurrence of past tense implies the same for future tense, the converse
- Universal #1395: The chronological ordering of tense neutralization in a subjunctive or semantically comparable category is alw
- Universal #1396: Deletion of past tenses in non-initial (or non-final) verbs of conjunctive series implies deletion of future t
- Universal #1397: A future participle implies both past and present participles but neither of the two converses is necessarily
Interrogative systems. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 4, 211-248.
Cited in:
- Universal #449: A genitive-marked constituent in a pronominally possessed construction implies genitive marking of the corresp
- Universal #450: A Gen N constituent order in a nominally possessed construction implies the same order in a pronominal (non-af
- Universal #451: A possessee marked for genitive implies a construction in which the possessor is so marked.
- Universal #452: A possessor marked for 3rd person implies a possessee so marked in the same construction.
- Universal #454: A free, less intimate possessor form may imply a bound, more intimate form, but not the converse.
- Universal #455: Personal possessive prefixes always imply a GN order, but not the converse; for personal possessive suffixes t
- Universal #456: An inalienably possessed, non-vocative noun does not necessarily imply that the corresponding vocative noun is
- Universal #460: The subject-marked possessor of a HAVE-construction implies a comitative-marked possessee.
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #665: Nonoccurrence of a rising terminal, higher pitched or special stress yes-no-question-contour implies postposit
- Universal #666: The presence of tag questions with nonrising (or higher pitched or stressed) contours implies also tag questio
- Universal #667: The presence of yes-no question inversion implies a basic order type in which subject precedes verb.
- Universal #668: Yes-no question inversion implies a resultant VSO order.In periphrastic constructions the finite auxiliary alw
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #670: While languages of all basic order types may have information-question-inversion, SOV languages are less likel
- Universal #671: Most question particles occur in sentence-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent) or in sentence-fina
- Universal #672: Question particles may co-occur with inversion in yes-no questions.
- Universal #673: Binary choice tags are almost always sentence final, multiple choice tags sentence initial.
- Universal #1003: Terminal intonations are almost universally low or falling for finality and assertion, and high or rising for
- Universal #1004: In patterned symbolic processes (particularly distance symbolism), vowel ablaut has the highest frequency of o
- Universal #1005: Front vowels predominantly correspond to diminutive and associated categories.
- Universal #1006: Voluntary metatheses imply non-phonological causes.
- Universal #1007: Resonance Hierarchy:vowel > semivowel > liquid > spirant > sibilant > nasal > stop.The more resonant a sound,
- Universal #1117: Wh-in-situ languages have special markings in yes-no questions, and languages with special markings in yes-no
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1391: Future tense markers may be less bound than present or past but never more so.
- Universal #1392: If the future is periphrastic, the auxiliary will always be a present tense or unmarked form.
- Universal #1393: Retrospective languages tend toward finer temporal gradation in the past than in the future and prospective la
- Universal #1394: In retrospective languages obligatory occurrence of past tense implies the same for future tense, the converse
- Universal #1395: The chronological ordering of tense neutralization in a subjunctive or semantically comparable category is alw
- Universal #1396: Deletion of past tenses in non-initial (or non-final) verbs of conjunctive series implies deletion of future t
- Universal #1397: A future participle implies both past and present participles but neither of the two converses is necessarily
Size-sound symbolism. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 2, 525-568.
Cited in:
- Universal #449: A genitive-marked constituent in a pronominally possessed construction implies genitive marking of the corresp
- Universal #450: A Gen N constituent order in a nominally possessed construction implies the same order in a pronominal (non-af
- Universal #451: A possessee marked for genitive implies a construction in which the possessor is so marked.
- Universal #452: A possessor marked for 3rd person implies a possessee so marked in the same construction.
- Universal #454: A free, less intimate possessor form may imply a bound, more intimate form, but not the converse.
- Universal #455: Personal possessive prefixes always imply a GN order, but not the converse; for personal possessive suffixes t
- Universal #456: An inalienably possessed, non-vocative noun does not necessarily imply that the corresponding vocative noun is
- Universal #460: The subject-marked possessor of a HAVE-construction implies a comitative-marked possessee.
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #665: Nonoccurrence of a rising terminal, higher pitched or special stress yes-no-question-contour implies postposit
- Universal #666: The presence of tag questions with nonrising (or higher pitched or stressed) contours implies also tag questio
- Universal #667: The presence of yes-no question inversion implies a basic order type in which subject precedes verb.
- Universal #668: Yes-no question inversion implies a resultant VSO order.In periphrastic constructions the finite auxiliary alw
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #670: While languages of all basic order types may have information-question-inversion, SOV languages are less likel
- Universal #671: Most question particles occur in sentence-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent) or in sentence-fina
- Universal #672: Question particles may co-occur with inversion in yes-no questions.
- Universal #673: Binary choice tags are almost always sentence final, multiple choice tags sentence initial.
- Universal #1003: Terminal intonations are almost universally low or falling for finality and assertion, and high or rising for
- Universal #1004: In patterned symbolic processes (particularly distance symbolism), vowel ablaut has the highest frequency of o
- Universal #1005: Front vowels predominantly correspond to diminutive and associated categories.
- Universal #1006: Voluntary metatheses imply non-phonological causes.
- Universal #1007: Resonance Hierarchy:vowel > semivowel > liquid > spirant > sibilant > nasal > stop.The more resonant a sound,
- Universal #1117: Wh-in-situ languages have special markings in yes-no questions, and languages with special markings in yes-no
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1391: Future tense markers may be less bound than present or past but never more so.
- Universal #1392: If the future is periphrastic, the auxiliary will always be a present tense or unmarked form.
- Universal #1393: Retrospective languages tend toward finer temporal gradation in the past than in the future and prospective la
- Universal #1394: In retrospective languages obligatory occurrence of past tense implies the same for future tense, the converse
- Universal #1395: The chronological ordering of tense neutralization in a subjunctive or semantically comparable category is alw
- Universal #1396: Deletion of past tenses in non-initial (or non-final) verbs of conjunctive series implies deletion of future t
- Universal #1397: A future participle implies both past and present participles but neither of the two converses is necessarily
Toward a typology of substantival possession. In Greenberg (ed.) 1978, Volume 4, 11-50.
Cited in:
- Universal #449: A genitive-marked constituent in a pronominally possessed construction implies genitive marking of the corresp
- Universal #450: A Gen N constituent order in a nominally possessed construction implies the same order in a pronominal (non-af
- Universal #451: A possessee marked for genitive implies a construction in which the possessor is so marked.
- Universal #452: A possessor marked for 3rd person implies a possessee so marked in the same construction.
- Universal #454: A free, less intimate possessor form may imply a bound, more intimate form, but not the converse.
- Universal #455: Personal possessive prefixes always imply a GN order, but not the converse; for personal possessive suffixes t
- Universal #456: An inalienably possessed, non-vocative noun does not necessarily imply that the corresponding vocative noun is
- Universal #460: The subject-marked possessor of a HAVE-construction implies a comitative-marked possessee.
- Universal #495: With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by referenc
- Universal #497: Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the sentence, a
- Universal #499: If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative sentences, it always puts interrogative words or phrases f
- Universal #665: Nonoccurrence of a rising terminal, higher pitched or special stress yes-no-question-contour implies postposit
- Universal #666: The presence of tag questions with nonrising (or higher pitched or stressed) contours implies also tag questio
- Universal #667: The presence of yes-no question inversion implies a basic order type in which subject precedes verb.
- Universal #668: Yes-no question inversion implies a resultant VSO order.In periphrastic constructions the finite auxiliary alw
- Universal #669: If a language has information question inversion, question words are almost always sentence initial.
- Universal #670: While languages of all basic order types may have information-question-inversion, SOV languages are less likel
- Universal #671: Most question particles occur in sentence-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent) or in sentence-fina
- Universal #672: Question particles may co-occur with inversion in yes-no questions.
- Universal #673: Binary choice tags are almost always sentence final, multiple choice tags sentence initial.
- Universal #1003: Terminal intonations are almost universally low or falling for finality and assertion, and high or rising for
- Universal #1004: In patterned symbolic processes (particularly distance symbolism), vowel ablaut has the highest frequency of o
- Universal #1005: Front vowels predominantly correspond to diminutive and associated categories.
- Universal #1006: Voluntary metatheses imply non-phonological causes.
- Universal #1007: Resonance Hierarchy:vowel > semivowel > liquid > spirant > sibilant > nasal > stop.The more resonant a sound,
- Universal #1117: Wh-in-situ languages have special markings in yes-no questions, and languages with special markings in yes-no
- Universal #1383: Question-word Movement Universal:All languages that move WH-question word to clause-peripheral position move i
- Universal #1384: Question-word Fronting and Basic Word Order:A fronted WH-question word will be preferred across languages in p
- Universal #1391: Future tense markers may be less bound than present or past but never more so.
- Universal #1392: If the future is periphrastic, the auxiliary will always be a present tense or unmarked form.
- Universal #1393: Retrospective languages tend toward finer temporal gradation in the past than in the future and prospective la
- Universal #1394: In retrospective languages obligatory occurrence of past tense implies the same for future tense, the converse
- Universal #1395: The chronological ordering of tense neutralization in a subjunctive or semantically comparable category is alw
- Universal #1396: Deletion of past tenses in non-initial (or non-final) verbs of conjunctive series implies deletion of future t
- Universal #1397: A future participle implies both past and present participles but neither of the two converses is necessarily
Opyt transformacionnogo issledovanija sintaksiceskoj tipologii. [Experience of transformational research of syntactic typology.] In Issledovanija po struktutnoj tipologii. Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #115: It is common for certain case distinctions to be neutralized for a given number, while the opposite phenomenon
- Universal #116: ... number is, as has been seen, closer to the stem and generally present when case is present, while the oppo
- Universal #117: In languages with a distinction between active (animate) vs. passive (inanimate) nouns, passive nouns don’t di
- Universal #118: If in a language, in a sentence the verb agrees with the noun in an oblique case and there is a noun in the no
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #518: If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #534: It seems probable that in all languages expressions of time and place may appear in the initial positions in t
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #795: No language has Secondary Nasal Consonants unless it has one or more Primary Nasal Consonants.
- Universal #796: In a given language, the number of Secondary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of Primary Nasa
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
- Universal #1017: A compact nasal consonant implies the the presence of two diffuse consonants, one acute and the other grave.
- Universal #1867: The acute/grave opposition of compact nasal consonants implies an identical opposition of compact oral stops.
Strukturnaja tipologija jazykov. [Structural Typology of Languages.] Moskva: Nauka.
Cited in:
- Universal #115: It is common for certain case distinctions to be neutralized for a given number, while the opposite phenomenon
- Universal #116: ... number is, as has been seen, closer to the stem and generally present when case is present, while the oppo
- Universal #117: In languages with a distinction between active (animate) vs. passive (inanimate) nouns, passive nouns don’t di
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #534: It seems probable that in all languages expressions of time and place may appear in the initial positions in t
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #792: If in a given language there are only two Primary Nasal Consonants, the other one is /m/, that is its most cha
- Universal #793: In a given language, the number of Primary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of obstruents.
- Universal #795: No language has Secondary Nasal Consonants unless it has one or more Primary Nasal Consonants.
- Universal #796: In a given language, the number of Secondary Nasal Consonants is never greater than the number of Primary Nasa
- Universal #808: The opposition of a stop and an affricate in the languages of the world implies the presence of a fricative in
- Universal #888: There are no languages with rounded front vowels but without rounded back vowels.
- Universal #938: When in a given language there is extensive neutralization among the primary nasal consonants, this occurs in
- Universal #940: No language has nasal vowels unless it also has one or more primary nasal consonants.
- Universal #951: In languages with phonemic stress, the number of phonemic contrasts in stressed syllables will be greater than
- Universal #1017: A compact nasal consonant implies the the presence of two diffuse consonants, one acute and the other grave.
- Universal #1074: If in a language phonemic stress co-exists with phonemic quantity, one of the two elements is subordinate to t
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
- Universal #1867: The acute/grave opposition of compact nasal consonants implies an identical opposition of compact oral stops.
- Universal #1894: The relation of the retroflex to the dental consonants proves to be a mere variety of the opposition of pharyn
- Rara #55: gender contrast in personal pronouns exclusively in 1st person singular
Nekotorye gipoteticeskie universalii iz oblasti grammatiki. [Some hypothetic universals from the grammatical sphere.] In Konferencia po problemam izucenija universal’nyx i areal’nyx svojstv jazykov. Tezisy dokladov, 86-93. Moskva.
Cited in:
- Universal #254: If there is a certain case distinction in the forms of the adjective, there is the same distinction in the nou
- Universal #709: The number of vowels in a nasal vowel system is equal to or less than the number in the corresponding oral vow
- Universal #1250: ... if syllables containing sequences of n consonants in a language are to be found as syllabic types, then se
Otnosenija podsistem v jazyke i svjazannye s nimi universalii. [Relation of subsystems in language and the cognate linguistic universals.] Voprosy Jazykoznanija 1968-6: 3-15.
Cited in:
- Universal #256: If there exists a regular gender (nominal class) distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily pr
- Universal #268: If in a language reduplication (full or partial) exists as a productive grammatical means of word- and formbui
- Universal #270: If in a language there is a special distinction of animate and inanimate (personal and non-personal) nouns con
- Universal #271: If a certain grammatical distinction occurs in the paradigm of the neuter gender, then this distinction also a
- Universal #272: If there exists a certain gender distinction in verb forms of the 1st and 2nd person, the same distinction als
- Universal #273: If there is a certain person or number distinction in the forms of a non-indicative mood, there will be the sa
- Universal #275: If by means of reduplication a decrease of quantity or degree may be expressed in a language, there are cases
- Universal #276: In all languages: if there is any grammatical opposition in the forms of Trial, the same opposition will be in
- Universal #277: If there is a regular number distinction in the forms of the adjective or of the verb, there is the same disti
- Universal #279: In all languages: if one of the forms of the imperative coincides with a pure (not overtly marked) root, then
- Universal #280: If a zero expression occurs in the form of a certain person in the indicative mood, then, included in the mean
- Universal #433: If there is a certain distinction as to voice in the forms of a non-indicative mood, the same distinction is a
- Universal #434: If there is a certain distinction as to aspect or tense in the forms of a non-indicative mood, the same distin
- Universal #516: A language never has more gender categories in non-singular numbers than in the singular.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #716: If there is any grammatical opposition in the forms of Dual, then there is the same opposition in the forms of
- Rara #55: gender contrast in personal pronouns exclusively in 1st person singular
Subsystems in language, their interrelations and their correlated universals. Linguistics 88: 53-71.
Cited in:
- Universal #256: If there exists a regular gender (nominal class) distinction in a language, this distinction is necessarily pr
- Universal #268: If in a language reduplication (full or partial) exists as a productive grammatical means of word- and formbui
- Universal #270: If in a language there is a special distinction of animate and inanimate (personal and non-personal) nouns con
- Universal #271: If a certain grammatical distinction occurs in the paradigm of the neuter gender, then this distinction also a
- Universal #272: If there exists a certain gender distinction in verb forms of the 1st and 2nd person, the same distinction als
- Universal #273: If there is a certain person or number distinction in the forms of a non-indicative mood, there will be the sa
- Universal #275: If by means of reduplication a decrease of quantity or degree may be expressed in a language, there are cases
- Universal #276: In all languages: if there is any grammatical opposition in the forms of Trial, the same opposition will be in
- Universal #277: If there is a regular number distinction in the forms of the adjective or of the verb, there is the same disti
- Universal #279: In all languages: if one of the forms of the imperative coincides with a pure (not overtly marked) root, then
- Universal #280: If a zero expression occurs in the form of a certain person in the indicative mood, then, included in the mean
- Universal #433: If there is a certain distinction as to voice in the forms of a non-indicative mood, the same distinction is a
- Universal #434: If there is a certain distinction as to aspect or tense in the forms of a non-indicative mood, the same distin
- Universal #517: All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
- Universal #519: If a language has gender distinctions in the 1st person, it always has gender distinctions in the 2nd or 3rd p
- Universal #716: If there is any grammatical opposition in the forms of Dual, then there is the same opposition in the forms of
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Rara #55: gender contrast in personal pronouns exclusively in 1st person singular
Uspensky, Boris A. & Viktor M. Zhivov (1973 [1977]). Centr i periferija v svete jazykovyx universalij. [Center-periphery opposition and language universals.] Voprosy jazykoznanija 1973-5: 24-35. Expanded version in Linguistics 196: 5-24.
Jazykovye universalii i lingvisticeskaya tipologia. [Language Universals and Linguistic Typology.] Moskva: Nauka.
Teorija i tipologija mestoimenij. [Theory and typology of pronouns.] Moskva: Nauka.
Phonetic detail in assimilation: Problems in Germanic phonology. Language 48: 863-892.
Cited in:
- Universal #1805: Syllables and words are more likely to contain obstruents syllable and word-initially, and sonorants finally.
- Universal #1855: Nonlaterals (trills or flaps) have the property of lowering a preceding vowel.
- Universal #1856: If a lateral is velarized, it happens to have a lowering effect on all vowels.
Preference Laws for Syllable Structure and the Explanation of Sound Change, with Special Reference to German, Germanic, Italian, and Latin. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #1700: Universal Hierarchy of Consonantal Strength:voiceless plosives > voiced stops > voiceless fricatives > voiced
- Universal #1701: The Shell Law:In general, a shell seems to be the more preferred, the less similar the head and (the mirror im
- Universal #1702: The Body Law (conjectured):There must be degrees of preference for combinations of nuclei with heads. For inst
- Universal #1703: The Rhyme Law (conjectured):There must be degrees of preference for combinations of nuclei with codas. For ins
- Universal #1704: The Syllabic Tone Law (conjectured):Non-level tones (chromatic accents) on short vowels — or more generally on
- Universal #1705: The Head Law:A syllable head is the more preferred: (a) the closer the number of speech sounds in the head is
- Universal #1706: The Coda Law:A syllable coda is the more preferred: (a) the smaller the number of speech sounds in the coda, (
- Universal #1707: The Nucleus Law:A nucleus is the more preferred: (a) the steadier its speech sound, and (b) the less the Conso
- Universal #1708: It follows from the Coda and Nucleus Laws (, ) that a syllable will be the more preferred, the less the Conson
- Universal #1709: It follows from the Head Law () that a syllable will be the more preferred, the greater the Consonantal Streng
- Universal #1710: The Weight Law (aka Stressed Syllables Law or Prokosch's Law):In stress accent languages an accented syllable
- Universal #1711: The Law of Initials:Word-medial syllable heads are the more preferred, the less they differ from possible word
- Universal #1712: The Law of Finals:Word-medial syllable codas are the more preferred, the less they differ from possible word-f
- Universal #1713: The Strength Assimilation Law:If Consonantal Strength is assimilated in a syllable contact, the Consonantal St
- Universal #1714: The Contact Law:A syllable contact A$B is the more preferred, the less the Consonantal Strength of the offset
- Universal #1715: The Attractiveness of Rhymes: A rhyme is the more attractive: (a) the more heavily its syllable is accented re
- Universal #1716: Lutz's Law:Heterosyllabication of an internuclear cluster is the more preferred, the more attractive the rhyme
- Universal #1717: The Attractiveness of Bodies:A body is the more attractive: (a) the more heavily its syllable is accented rela
- Universal #1718: Quality of Contact Embedding:A syllable contact A$B is the better embedded, the more attractive the rhyme of t
- Universal #1719: General Syllabication Law:A syllabication is the more preferred: (a) the better the resulting syllable contact
- Universal #1720: Higher Order Law:All syllabic complexities are less disfavoured in stressed syllables than in unstressed sylla
Indo-European o-stems and feminine stems in -í. In Plank (ed.) 1995, 243-264.
On the grammar of inflected non-finite forms (with special reference to Old Neapolitan). In Iørn Korzen & Michael Herslund (eds.), Clause Combining and Text Structure (Copenhagen Studies in Language, 22), 135-158. Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur.
Cited in:
- Universal #1759: For all languages, if person and/or number is marked on non-finite forms, then it is also marked on finite for
- Universal #1760: For all languages, if the subject of a non-finite form is nominative, then the subject of (at least some) fini
- Universal #1761: For all languages, if tense is marked on non-finite forms, then it is also marked on finite forms.
Hierarchical opacity effects in nasal harmony. Eastern States Conference on Linguistics 11: 318-329.
Nasalization, neutral segments, and opacity effects. Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Santa Cruz.
Possible and impossible segments. Language 75: 766-780.
Studien zur Nomen-Verb-Distinktion aus typologischer Sicht. (Structura, 13.) München: Fink.
Cited in:
- Universal #408: If person marking in possessed nouns and intransitive verbs is phonologically identical, this will also be the
- Universal #409: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of non-perfective ten
- Universal #410: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and verbs of non-indicative moods (imperativ
- Universal #411: If person marking is phonologically identical for possessed nouns and intransitive verbs of the non-subordinat
- Universal #469: If marking for nominal and verbal Number is phonologically identical, this will be the case for nouns and verb
- Universal #470: If marking of number is phonologically identical for nouns and verbal forms in the 1st and 2nd person, this wi
A pragmatic analysis of so-called anaphoric islands. Language 67: 439-474.
Einführung in Problematik und Methodik der Sprachwissenschaft. Halle an der Saale: Niemeyer.
Cited in:
Field work and phonological theory. Unpublished. (To appear in Phonology?)
Cited in:
- Universal #2012: If vowel length is contrastive, pitch is the most important cue, intensity the second-most important cue, and
- Rara #105: stress accent and lexical tone as independent contrasting categories of word prosody, with contrastive tone on
- Rara #106: pitch accent and lexical tone as independent contrasting categories of word prosody
The Typology of Adjectival Predication. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Cited in:
- Universal #801: The Tensedness Universals of Adjective Encoding:A. If a language is tensed, it will have nouny adjectives. If
- Universal #802: The Tensedness Universals of Adjective Encoding:B. If a language is non-tensed, it will have verby adjectives.
- Universal #1113: There is no language in which person marking applies to predicate nouns and not to predicate verbs.
What’s in a noun? (Or: How do nouns differ in meaning from adjectives?) In Anna Wierzbicka, The Semantics of Grammar, 463-497. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #2021: All languages have a word for FEEL, undifferentiated between "bodily feelings" (sensations) and "cognitively b
- Universal #2022: In all languages, some feelings can be described as "good" and some as "bad" (while some may be viewed as neit
- Universal #2023: All languages have words comparable, though not necessarily identical in meaning, with cry and smile; that is
- Universal #2024: All languages have "emotive" interjections (i.e. interjections expressing cognitively based feelings).
- Universal #2025: All languages have some "emotion terms" (i.e. terms designating some cognitively based feelings).
- Universal #2026: All languages have words linking feelings with (i) the thought that "something bad can happen to me", (ii) the
- Universal #2027: (i) In all languages, people can describe cognitively based feelings via observable bodily "symptoms" (that is
- Universal #2028: In all languages, there are alternative grammatical constructions for describing (and interpreting) cognitivel
- Universal #2029: It also appears that the main universal mode for describing cognitively based feelings is in terms of a compar
Grammaticalized coreference. In Ursula Wiesemann (ed.), Pronominal Systems, 437-464. Tübingen: Narr.
Cited in:
- Universal #610: If there is Switch-Reference marking with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3rd person, but not vice versa
- Universal #611: If there are reflexive pronouns distinct from non-reflexive ones with 1st and/or 2nd Person, then also with 3r
- Universal #1192: If there are logophoric forms for1st and/or 2nd person pronouns, then there is one for the 3rd person pronoun.
- Universal #1193: If there is reciprocal marking for 1st person, then there also for 2nd person; if for 2nd person, then also fo
- Universal #1194: If non-subject can control reflexives/reciprocals, then subjects can, too.
- Universal #1195: If a reflexive/reciprocal can be an indirect object and/or circumstantial, then a reflexive/reciprocal can als
- Universal #1453: In no language is there a special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular.
- Universal #1454: In all languages, if some form denotes the metaperson 'hearer' in the non-singular, then this form includes am
- Universal #1471: In an overwhelming majority of languages, there is no special form to denote the metaperson 'hearer(s) + non-p
- Universal #1948: One generally unremarked fact is that 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a pluralit
- Rara #67: a three-way distinction among personal pronouns between 'singular speaker', 'singular non-speaker' (i.e. addr
- Rara #69: a quadral number with personal pronouns
- Rara #71: no number inflection at all on any personal pronouns
From part to person: Natural tendencies of semantic change and the search for cognates. (Cognitive Anthropology Research Group, Working Paper, 23.) Nijmegen: Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics.
Cited in:
- Universal #1180: Terms for ‘pupil (of the eye)’ are most likely to be derived from nouns denoting a small human like a baby, or
- Universal #1181: There are contrasting transfer patterns for thumbs and big toes on the one hand and the remaining digits on th
- Universal #1182: The notion ‘muscle’ is expressed predominantly by using small mammals as structural templates. As in the case
- Universal #1183: For the concept ‘testicle’, by far the most widespread source is provided by terms for ‘egg’, alternative opti
Natural tendencies of semantic change and the search for cognates. In Mark Duirie & Malcom Ross (eds.), The Comparative Method Reviewed, 264-304. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cited in:
- Universal #1180: Terms for ‘pupil (of the eye)’ are most likely to be derived from nouns denoting a small human like a baby, or
- Universal #1181: There are contrasting transfer patterns for thumbs and big toes on the one hand and the remaining digits on th
- Universal #1182: The notion ‘muscle’ is expressed predominantly by using small mammals as structural templates. As in the case
- Universal #1183: For the concept ‘testicle’, by far the most widespread source is provided by terms for ‘egg’, alternative opti
Völkerpsychologie. Eine Untersuchung der Entwicklungsgesetze von Sprache, Mythos und Sitte, Band 1: Die Sprache, Teil 2. 2nd edition. Leipzig: Engelmann.
Semantika i tipologija imperativa. Russkij imperativ. [Semantics and Typology of Imperative: Russian Imperative.] Leningrad: Nauka.
Native Middle American Languages: An Areal-Typological Perspective. (Senri Ethnological Studies, 39.) Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
Cited in:
- Universal #56: With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the
- Universal #705: Languages with two or more interior vowels always have a high one.
- Universal #706: The number of vowels in a column of interior vowels cannot exceed the number in the front or back columns.
- Universal #707: The number of height distinctions in front vowels is equal to or greater than the number in back vowels.
- Universal #708: There is a tendency for high and low short vowels to be more central than the corresponding long vowels.
- Universal #710: If a nasal vowel system is smaller than the corresponding basic vowel system, it is most often a mid vowel tha
- Universal #771: If a language has only two primary fricatives, the second one is most likely to be /f/.
- Universal #772: In a given language the number of voiceless primary fricatives is highly likely to be greater than the number
- Universal #778: Every language must have at least one Primary Nasal Consonant in its inventory.
- Universal #781: If a language has only three primary oral stops, their primary allophones are most likely to be /p t k/.
- Universal #782: If a language has an affricated stop, it is most likely that it also has (at least) three plain stops.
- Universal #783:
- Universal #784: In a given language the number of voiceless primary oral stops is nearly always greater than the number of voi
- Universal #785: The presence of a voiced primary oral stop in a language is highly likely to imply the presence of its voicele
- Universal #786: In a given language, the number of primary oral affricates will be less than the number of primary oral stops.
- Universal #789: The number of secondary oral stops in a given language is not likely to be greater than that of primary oral s
- Universal #791: If in a given language there is only one Primary Nasal Consonant, it is /n/, that is, its most characteristic
- Universal #834: Languages with two or more liquids are most likely to have at least one lateral, and a lateral/non-lateral con
- Universal #835: A language with one or more laterals has a voiced lateral approximant.
- Universal #1425: There is a tendency for languages having nasalized vowels to show more asymmetry than languages having long vo
On the encoding of sentential modality. In Johannes Bechert, Giuliano Bernini, & Claude Buridant (eds.), Toward a Typology of European Languages, 215-237. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
The effects of duration and sonority on contour tone distribution: Typological survey and formal analysis. Doctoral dissertation, UCLA.
Fonologiceskaja tipologija slova. [Phonological Typology of the Word.] Moskva: Izdatel’stvo universiteta druzhby narodov.