Universal 2010:

Universal 2010:

Original

Overall Dependency Hierarchy between Grammatical Systems:

1. Polarity (I)
2. Tense; Aspect; Evidentiality (II)
3. { Person; Reference classification (gender etc.) (III)
4. { Number (III) }
5. Case (IV) }

This basically indicates that a grammatical system may be dependent on any system above it in the hierarchy. The lower system may have a different set of choices available according to which term is chosen from the higher system. The braces indicate mutual dependencies (i) between person and reference classification, and number; and (ii) between number and case.

Further expectations:
1. Mood should not be dependent on aspect, number, or case; mood should not be dependent on polarity, nor vice versa.

2. Definiteness is probably to be added quite low in the hierarchy, just above Case and below Number, or at the same level as Case or Number (Definiteness may depend on Number, and vice versa; Definiteness may depend on number, and vice versa).

Standardized

Overall Dependency Hierarchy between Grammatical Systems:

1. Polarity (I)
2. Tense; Aspect; Evidentiality (II)
3. { Person; Reference classification (gender etc.) (III)
4. { Number (III) }
5. Case (IV) }

This basically indicates that a grammatical system may be dependent on any system above it in the hierarchy. The lower system may have a different set of choices available according to which term is chosen from the higher system. The braces indicate mutual dependencies (i) between person and reference classification, and number; and (ii) between number and case.

Further expectations:
1. Mood should not be dependent on aspect, number, or case; mood should not be dependent on polarity, nor vice versa.

2. Definiteness is probably to be added quite low in the hierarchy, just above Case and below Number, or at the same level as Case or Number (Definiteness may depend on Number, and vice versa; Definiteness may depend on number, and vice versa).

Keywords

polarity, tense, aspect, evidentiality, person, gender, number, case, neutralization, syncretism

Domain

inflection

Type

implicational hierarchy

Status

achronic

Quality

absolute

Basis

more than 500 languages in all, among which are mentioned: Estonian, French, German, Hebrew, Hindi, Latin, Mandarin Chinese, Portuguese, Russian, Sanskrit, Spanish, Swahili (grammars); Tariana, Manambu, Estonian, Jarawara, Dyirbal, Warrgamay (fieldwork data); plus lgs
from which actual examples are given

Source

Aikhenvald & Dixon 1998: 72-73

Counterexamples