Universals Archive
A database of proposed crosslinguistic laws and tendencies in grammar across the world’s languages. 2,029 published entries.
1,130 entries · page 10 of 23
| # | Standardized / Original | Domain | Type | Keywords |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 665 | IF yes-no questions do not have a rising terminal, higher pitched or special stress contour, THEN there are postpositions. | syntax, prosodic phonology | implication | interrogative sentence, yes-no question, intonation, stress, postposition |
| 666 | IF there are tag questions with nonrising (or not higher pitched or stressed)contours, THEN there are tag questions with rising (etc.) contours. | syntax, prosodic phonology | implication | interrogative sentence, tag question, intonation |
| 667 | IF there is inversion of subject and verb in yes-no questions, THEN subject precedes verb in basic order. | syntax | implication | order, interrogative sentence, yes-no question, subject-verb inversion |
| 668 | IF there is inversion of subject and verb in yes-no questions, THEN the resulting order is VSO (and the basic order will therefore be SVO). | syntax | implication | order, interrogative sentence, yes-no question, subject-verb inversion, periphrastic construction, auxiliary, finite verb |
| 669 | IF there is inversion in information questions, THEN question words are almost always sentence initial. | syntax | implication | information question, inversion, question word, order |
| 670 | IF basic word order is SOV, THEN there tends to be no inversion in information questions. | syntax | implication | order, interrogative sentence, information question, inversion |
| 671 | IF basic word order is SOV, THEN question particles almost always occur sentence finally. IF basic word order is not SOV, THEN question particles show a greater tendency than with basic order SOV to occur sentence initially. |
syntax | implication | order, interrogative sentence, question particle, SOV |
| 672 | IF yes-no questions are marked by question particles, THEN they may in addition be marked by verb inversion, and vice versa. | syntax | mutual implication | interrogative sentence, yes-no question, question particle, inversion |
| 673 | IF tags are binary choice, THEN they are sentence final. IF tags are multiple choice, THEN they are sentence initial. |
syntax | implication | order, interrogative sentence, tag question |
| 675 | see Graphics | morphology, syntax, prosodic phonology | mutual implication | order, noun, adjective, attributive, verb, object, topic, comment, preposition, postposition dependent-marking, analytic, synthetic morphosyntax, word accent, compound accent, phrase accent, syllable, length, vocalism, timing, sterss, vowel inventory, noun class, gender, article |
| 677 | IF the order is VSO and the relative clause is postnominal, THEN the relative clause contains either initial relative particle or pronouns or a special marker on the main verb of the clause. | syntax | implication | relative clause, order, postnominal, personal pronoun, relative particle, verbal affix |
| 678 | IF relative clauses are prenominal, THEN they very rarely retain a personal pronoun in the position of the relativized NP. |
syntax | implication | relative clause, order, personal pronoun |
| 679 | IF there are replacive relative clauses, THEN in the basic word order verbs follow their objects, and there is a general rule of left-to-right deletion of anaphora. | syntax | implication | relative clause, replacive (=internal, =headless), order, OV, anaphora |
| 680 | IF relative pronouns of interrogative form are used in ad-relative clauses, THEN interrogative pronouns are placed in initial position in questions. | syntax | implication | relative clause, interrogative pronoun, question, order, relative pronoun |
| 681 | IF there are (other) initial nonverbal elements in subordinate clauses, THEN postnominal relative clauses contain relative pronouns. | syntax | implication | relative clause, order, postnominal, initial, verb |
| 682 | IF there is double negation, THEN negation precedes and follows the verb. | syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | double negation, order, negation |
| 683 | IF there is a dummy auxiliary negative construction, THEN there is another way of negation. |
syntax | implication | negation, dummy auxiliary |
| 684 | The main principles for the position of negatives: (a) they tend not to be separated from the verb by the subject or the object, (b) they tend not to interrupt the verb+object unit (Negative-Plus-VO Principle), and (c) they tend to precede the verb (Negative-Before-Verb-Principle). |
syntax | unconditional | negation, order |
| 686 | IF negation is syntactic, THEN a. moveability of Negation; b. prosodic independence (e.g. the Negation morpheme carries a stress of its own); c. in written language: orthographic separation; d. the Negation morpheme by itself carries inflectional affixes. |
syntax, prosodic phonology | implication | negation, prosodic phrasing, stress, inflection |
| 687 | IF there is morphological (suffixal) negation, THEN word order is verb-final or free. | inflection, syntax | implication | order, verb-initial, free, negation, affix-order, suffix |
| 691 | IF bound morphology is exclusively or predominantly prefixing, THEN symmetrical reduplicative compounds (provided such complex forms exist) will be overwhelmingly alliterative rather than rhyming or ablauting. | morphology, syntax | implication | compounds, affix, prefix, alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, iambic |
| 714 | IF one co-ordination strategy is used for NPs, THEN it is also used for PPs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for PPs, THEN it is also used for APs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for APs, THEN it is also used for VPs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for VPs, THEN it is also used for Ss. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | co-ordination, complex sentences, complex phrases |
| 721 | IF there is a deictic salience of the 2nd person, THEN there is a category of inclusive. | inflection, syntax | implication | person hierarchy, 2 person, inclusive |
| 733 | Whenever there is person agreement in intransitive main clauses, IF intransitive predicates other than those denoting events agree in person, THEN those denoting events will also agree in person. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implication | agreement, person, transitivity, event predicate |
| 734 | IF predicates are encoded independently, i.e., without the support of a copula, substantive verb, or locative verb, THEN this encoding will always comprise event predicates. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | copula, zero, event predicate |
| 735 | IF predication can be encoded through zero or nonverbal copula, THEN this encoding will be used for identity statements. | syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | copula, zero, identity statement |
| 736 | IF there is zero or nonverbal copula encoding for sentence types other than identity statements, THEN there is zero or nonverbal copula encoding for predicate nominal sentences. | syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | copula, zero, identity statement, predicate nominal |
| 737 | IF a zero copula is allowed at all, THEN this option will be minimally selected for predicate nominal sentences in the present tense with a 3rd person subject. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | copula, zero, predicate nominal, tense, present, 3rd person, subject |
| 738 | If predicate nominals are encoded verbally, THEN predicative adjectives are encoded verbally. | inflection, syntax | implication | word class, predicate nominal, predicative adjective |
| 739 | If predicative adjectives are encoded nonverbally, then predicate nominals are encoded nonverbally. | inflection, syntax | implication | word class, predicate nominal, predicative adjective |
| 740 | IF there is a nominal-verbal split in encoding property concepts, THEN Human Propensity predicates will be encoded by the verbal strategy. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | word class, adjective, verb, noun, property concepts, human propensity |
| 741 | Hierarchy of Property Concepts: Human Propensity > Physical Property > Dimension / Colour > Value / Age / Form > Material / Gender When languages encode these types of property concepts by different word classes, wherever the cut-off point, IF a concept type is encoded nominally, THEN all concept types lower on the hierarchy are also encoded nominally; and IF a concept type is encoded verbally, THEN all concept types higher on the hierarchy are also encoded verbally; IF any concept types are encoded through a distinct word class of adjectives, THEN this will include those from the middle of the hierarchy. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | word class, verb, noun, adjective, property concepts |
| 742 | IF there is a nominal-verbal split in encoding property concepts, THEN items which belong to the adjectival categories of Material and Gender will be be encoded by the non-verbal strategy. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | word class, adjective, property concepts, material, gender |
| 743 | IF there is verbal-nominal switching for adjectives, THEN the nominal option will always encode the more time-stable reading. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | word class, time stability, adjective, verb, noun |
| 744 | IF there is nominal-locational switching for adjectives, THEN the nominal option will encode the more time-stable reading. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | word class, time stability, adjective, noun, locational |
| 745 | IF the nominal strategy partakes in an Adjective-switch, and IF that switch is monitored by Time Stability, THEN the nominal strategy will encode the more time-stable option. | inflection, syntax, semantics | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | word class, time stability, adjective, noun |
| 746 | IF there is nominal/locational switching for predicate nominals, THEN there is either nominal/locational switching for predicate adjectives, or complete locational take-over for predicate adjectives. | inflection, syntax, semantics | implication | word class, predicate nominal, predicate adjective, locational |
| 747 | IF a nominal nominal/locational switch is motivated by conditions of Time-Stability, THEN the nominal strategy will encode the more time-stable option. | syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | nominal-locational switching, encoding, time stability |
| 748 | IF a nominal verbal/nominal switch is motivated by conditions of Time-Stability, THEN the nominal strategy will encode the more time-stable option. | syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | verbal/nominal switching, encoding, time stability |
| 749 | IF there is an encoding of a tense opposition in a verbal system, THEN this opposition will hold between Past and non-Past. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | tense, past, non-past |
| 750 | IF there is an encoding of aspectual opposition in a verbal system, THEN this opposition will hold between Imperfective and Perfective. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | aspect, perfective, imperfective |
| 751 | IF nominal encoding of predicative adjectives is allowed, THEN there is nominal merging. | inflection, syntax | implication | encoding, predicative adjective, nominal merging |
| 752 | IF locational encoding of predicative adjectives is allowed, THEN there is locational merging. | syntax | implication | encoding, predicative adjective, locational merging |
| 753 | IF there is conditioned multiple nominal/locational switching, THEN the nominal strategy is limited to the Present Tense. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | multiple-switching, encoding, present tense |
| 754 | IF there is tense-induced multiple switching, THEN category switching (if any) is restricted to Present Tense. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | multiple-switching, present tense |
| 801 | IF there is tensedness, THEN adjectives are nouny. IF adjectives are nouny, THEN there is tensedness. |
morphosyntax | mutual implication | predicative adjective, noun, tensed |
| 802 | IF there is non-tensedness, THEN adjectives are verby. IF adjectives are verby, THEN there is non-tensedness. |
inflection, syntax | mutual implication | predicative adjective, verb, tensed |
| 803 | IF a language is isolating (with bound morphology lacking), THEN there tend to be noun classifiers rather than noun classes. IF there is agglutination or flexion (in languages with rich inflectional systems), THEN there tend to be noun classes rather than noun classifiers |
inflection, syntax | implication | agglutination, flexion, isolation, classifier, noun class |
| 804 | IF there is complex overall morphology, THEN there tend to be noun classes. | inflection, syntax | implication | agglutination, flexion, noun class |
| 823 | IF relative clause is prenominal, THEN relative pronouns are not used in the position relativized. IF relative clause is postnominal, THEN personal pronouns and relative pronouns are commonly used in position relativized. |
syntax | implication | relative clause, order, relative pronoun, personal pronoun |