Universals Archive
A database of proposed crosslinguistic laws and tendencies in grammar across the world’s languages. 2,029 published entries.
78 entries · page 2 of 2
| # | Standardized / Original | Domain | Type | Keywords |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1609 | IF vowels are nasalized before nasals that are syllable-initial, THEN vowels are nasalized before a nasal followed by non-continuants. IF vowels are nasalized before a nasal followed by non-continuants, THEN also before a nasal followed by continuants. IF vowels are nasalized before a nasal followed by continuants, THEN vowels are nasalized when nasal is final. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasalization |
| 1610 | IF nasalization spreads from a contextually nasalized vowel to a liquid, THEN it also spreads to oral glides. IF nasalization spreads from a contextually nasalized vowel to an oral glide, THEN it also spreads to glottal stop, h and adjacent vowels. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasalization |
| 1612 | IF the feature [nasal] spreads through supralaryngeal segments (like in the implicational sequence above), THEN it spreads also through vowels. IF the feature [nasal] spreads through laryngeal segments, THEN it spreads also through vowels. IF the feature [nasal] spreads through supralaryngeal segments, THEN it does not necessarily spread through laryngeal segments. IN OTHER WORDS: spreading through supralaryngeal segments is independent of spreading through laryngeal segments. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasalization |
| 1621 | IF there are numeral classifiers distinguishing anything else, THEN there are numeral classifiers distinguishing animate/human and inanimate/nonhuman. For animate/human class: IF a numeral classifier system distinguishes objects by their sex, THEN it also distinguishes them by social status (including kinship relations). For inanimate/nonhuman class: IF a numeral classifier system distinguishes objects by orientation, THEN it also distinguishes them by shape. IF a numeral classifier system distinguishes objects by their rigidity, THEN it also distinguishes them by shape. IF a numeral classifier system distinguishes objects by their nature/function, THEN it also distinguishes them by shape. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | numeral classifier, animacy<br> |
| 1646 | IF there are transitive reflexive verbs, THEN there are objective reflexive verbs. IF there are objective reflexive verbs, THEN there are subjective reflexive verbs. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | reflexive |
| 1659 | IF there are evidentials encoding direct evidence, THEN there are evidentials for indirect evidence. IF there is an evidential category for visual evidence, THEN there is evidential category for non-visual evidence. IF there is an evidential category for inferential evidence, THEN there is evidential category for quotative evidence. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | evidentiality hierarchy |
| 1677 | The consonant types on the right end of the hierarchy exercise a greater tone-lowering effect, while those at the left end of the hierarchy excercise a smaller tone-lowering effect. | prosodic phonology | implicational hierarchy | tone, low, consonant |
| 1699 | IF there is an interrogative pro-verb, THEN there is an interrogative pro-numeral. IF there is an interrogative pro-numeral, THEN there is an interrogative pro-adjective. IF there is an interrogative pro-adjective, THEN there is an interrogative pro-adverb. IF there is an interrogative pro-adverb, THEN there is an interrogative pro-noun. |
lexicon | implicational hierarchy | interrogative word |
| 1700 | Universal Hierarchy of Consonantal Strength: voiceless plosives > voiced stops > voiceless fricatives > voiced fricatives > nasals > lateral liquids (l-sounds) > central liquids (r-sounds) > high vowels > mid vowels > low vowels. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | consonant, strength, sonority |
| 1765 | IF there is consonantal deletion in initial position, THEN there will be consonantal deletion in intervocalic position. IF there is consonantal deletion in intervocalic position, THEN there will be consonantal deletion in final position. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | consonant, weakening, initial, intervocalic, final, hierarchy |
| 1766 | Hierarchy of major-class and manner features in the context of consonantal weakening: Ø < glides < liquids < nasals < +v fricatives < -v fricatives/-v stops < -v stops.<br> The consonants more to the left on the hierarchy are classified as weaker, leading to eventual deletion, diachronically speaking. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | consonant, weakening, hierarchy |
| 1768 | IF labials undergo phonological weakening, THEN dentals will have undergone phonological weakening. IF dentals undergo phonological weakening, THEN velars will have undergone phonological weakening. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | consonant, weakening, labial, dental, velar |
| 1782 | IF there is assibilation of labials, THEN there must be assibilation of dentals. IF there is assibilation of dentals, THEN there must be assibilation of velars. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | assibilation, labial, dental, velar |
| 1783 | IF assibilation occurs before /a/, THEN it must occur before /e/. IF assibilation occurs before /e/, THEN it must occur before /i/. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | assibilation, vowel |
| 1795 | IF N-deletion occurs in post-tonic unstressed syllables, THEN it will have already occurred in pretonic unstressed syllables. IF N-deletion occurs in pretonic unstressed syllables, THEN it will have already occurred in tonic stressed syllables. IF denasalization occurs in tonic stressed syllables, THEN it will have already occured in pretonic unstressed syllables. IF denasalization occurs in pretonic unstressed syllables, THEN it will have already occured in post-tonic unstressed syllables. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasal, deletion, denasalization, stress, tonic, atonic |
| 1796 | IF nasalization is phonologized first on proparoxytonic vowels before nasals, THEN nasalization will have already been phonologized on paroxytonic vowels before nasals. IF nasalization is phonologized first on paroxytonic vowels before nasals, THEN nasalization will have already been phonologized on oxytonic vowels before nasals. |
prosodic phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasalization, nasal, oxytone, vowel |
| 1797 | IF nasals are deleted word-finally preceding vowels, THEN they are deleted word-finally before consonants. IF nasals are deleted word-finally preceding consonants, THEN they are deleted word-medially before consonants. |
prosodic phonology | implicational hierarchy | deletion, nasal, consonant, vowel |
| 1866 | IF nasalization and nasal deletion occur in the context of high vowels, THEN it will have already occurred in the context of mid vowels. IF nasalization and nasal deletion occur in the context of mid vowels, THEN it will have already occurred in the context of low vowels. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasalization, nasal deletion, vowel, low, high, mid |
| 1880 | Frequency hierarchy for the coding of subordination vis-a-vis that of non-subordinate clauses: elimination of tense/aspect/mood >> elimination of agreement distinctions, omission of verb arguments >> case/adposition marking on the verb >> coding of verb arguments as possessor or obliques. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | clause combining, subordination, tense, aspect, mood, agreement, case, adposition, possessor, oblique |
| 1890 | IF Object of Comparison can be clefted, THEN Genitive NP can be clefted as well. IF Genitive NP can be clefted, THEN Oblique NP can be clefted as well. IF Oblique NP can be clefted, THEN Indirect Object can be clefted as well. IF Indirect Object can be clefted, THEN Direct Object can be clefted as well. IF Direct Object can be clefted, THEN Subject can be clefted as well. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | cleft, subject, direct object, indirect, oblique, attributive, comparison |
| 1891 | The Cleftability Hierarchy: Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Comparison. Syntactic positions on the top of the cleftability hierarchy have more access to the deletion strategy and/or less access to the pronoun retention strategy. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | cleft, pronoun deletion, retention |
| 1892 | The Cleftability Hierarchy: Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Oblique NP > Genitive NP > Object of Comparison. Syntactic positions on the top of the hierarchy can be clefted in a larger variety of sentences, or in more complex constructions than those on the bottom of the hierarchy. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | cleft, complexity |
| 1957 | IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in a comparative context, THEN it can also occur in a conditional context. IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in a conditional context, THEN it can also occur in an interrogative context. IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in an interrogative context, THEN it can also occur in a negative context. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | negative polarity item, auxiliary, comparative, conditional, interrogative, negative |
| 1969 | For both stems and consonant clusters, IF less sonorant consonant combinations are permissible, THEN the corresponding more sonorant consonant combinations are also permissible: CVC > CVS > CV CC > CS > C |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | phonotactics, sonority, stem, consonant cluster |
| 2008 | The Agreement Hierarchy:attributive < predicate < relative pronoun < personal pronoun(i) Possible agreement pattern are constrained as follows: As we move rightwards along the hierarchy, the likelihood of semantic agreement [in gender or number] [with hybrid nouns] will increase monotonically (that is, with no intervening decrease).(ii) Whenever, in a given position on the Agreement Hierarchy there is a difference between the agreements found in the nominative and in the oblique cases, the likelihood of semantic agreement in the nominative will be as high as or higher than the likelihood of semantic agreement in the oblique cases.(iii) When stacked targets of a given controller stand in different agreement forms, the further target will show semantic agreement.(iv) If parallel targets show different agreement forms, then the further target will show semantic agreement.(v) For any particular target type, the further it is removed from its controller, the greater the likelihood of semantic agreement. | inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | agreement, gender, number, case, nominative, oblique |
| 2014 | IF augmentatives/diminutives can be formed from Determiners, THEN they can also be formed from Adverbs, Numerals, Pronouns, or Interjections;IF from Adverbs, Numerals, Pronouns, or Interjections, THEN also from Adjectives or Verbs;IF from Adjectives or Verbs, THEN from Nouns. | word formation | implicational hierarchy | augmentative, diminutive, word class, noun, adjective, verb, adverb, numeral, pronoun, interjection, determiner |
| 2016 | Overall Dependency Hierarchy between Grammatical Systems: 1. Polarity (I) 2. Tense; Aspect; Evidentiality (II) 3. { Person; Reference classification (gender etc.) (III) 4. { Number (III) } 5. Case (IV) } This basically indicates that a grammatical system may be dependent on any system above it in the hierarchy. The lower system may have a different set of choices available according to which term is chosen from the higher system. The braces indicate mutual dependencies (i) between person and reference classification, and number; and (ii) between number and case. Further expectations: 1. Mood should not be dependent on aspect, number, or case; mood should not be dependent on polarity, nor vice versa. 2. Definiteness is probably to be added quite low in the hierarchy, just above Case and below Number, or at the same level as Case or Number (Definiteness may depend on Number, and vice versa; Definiteness may depend on number, and vice versa). |
inflection | implicational hierarchy | polarity, tense, aspect, evidentiality, person, gender, number, case, neutralization, syncretism |
| 2033 | IF there are contour tones in place X on any of the hierarchies in (a)-(d), THEN there are contour tones also lower on each hierarchy:(a) syllable type: CVV >> CVR >> (CVO) >> CV(b) number of syllables: monosyllabic >> bisyllabic >> polysyllabic(c) prominence: stressed >> unstressed, root >> affix syllable(d) tone: R >> F >> H, L | phonology | implicational hierarchy | tone, contour tone |