Universals Archive
A database of proposed crosslinguistic laws and tendencies in grammar across the world’s languages. 2,029 published entries.
2,017 entries · page 2 of 41
| # | Standardized / Original | Domain | Type | Keywords |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 51 | The agreement features of governing elements in agreement with NPs governed may include person but not case. | inflection, syntax | unconditional | verb, adposition, possession, dependent, agreement, case, person |
| 52 | IF a target agrees in case, THEN it will not agree in person; IF a target agrees in person, THEN it will not agree in case. |
inflection, syntax | mutual implication | agreement, case, person |
| 53 | In the construction of possessive attribution, only the possessor may agree in case with the possessum, while only the possessum may agree in person with the possessor. | inflection, syntax | implication | possessor, possessee, agreement, case, person |
| 54 | If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise assigned case, lexical case takes precedence over all other types of case assignment, while structural case does not take precedence over any other type of case; that is, such agreement conflicts are resolved in terms of the case hierarchy, lexical case > ... > structural case (in particular nominative/accusative). | inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | case, structural case, lexical case, case hierarchy, nominative, accusative, agreement |
| 55 | IF basic order is VSO, THEN adpositions precede their NPs (i.e. they are prepositions). | syntax | implication | order, VSO, preposition |
| 56 | IF basic order is VSO, THEN, with overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, adjectives follow the noun. | syntax | implication | order, VSO, adjective, noun |
| 57 | IF the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, THEN, with overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, the demonstrative and the numeral do likewise. | syntax | implication | adjective, noun, demonstrative, numeral, order |
| 58 | IF the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows the noun, THEN there may be a minority of adjectives which usually precede, but IF the general rule is that descriptive adjectives precede the noun, THEN there are no exceptions. | syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | order, adjective, noun |
| 59 | When any or all of these items — demonstrative, numeral, descriptive adjective — precede the noun, they are always found in that order. If they follow, the order is the same or the opposite. | syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | order, adjective, demonstrative, numeral, noun |
| 60 | IF some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, THEN the qualifying adjective follows the noun and the verb precedes its nominal object as the basic order. | syntax | implication | order, adverb, adjective, noun, verb, object |
| 61 | IF in comparisons of superiority the only order, or one of the alternative orders, is Standard - Marker - Adjective, THEN there are postpositions; IF the only order is Adjective - Marker - Standard, THEN there are prepositions. |
syntax | implication | order, adjective, comparison, postposition, preposition |
| 62 | IF the relative clause precedes the noun either as the only or as an alternative construction, THEN either adpositions follow NPs (i.e. are postpositions) or the adjective precedes the noun or both. | syntax | implication | order, relative clause, adjective, noun, postposition |
| 63 | IF the adjective follows the noun, THEN the adjective expresses all the inflectional categories of the noun, while the noun itself may lack overt expression of one or all of these categories. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | order, adjective, noun, inflection |
| 64 | IF alignment is (exclusively or overwhelmingly) nominative-accusative, THEN the causee of causative verbs derived from transitive verbs is an oblique object; IF alignment is (exclusively or overwhelmingly) ergative-absolutive, THEN the causee of causative verbs derived from transitive verbs is a direct object. |
morphology, syntax | implication | alignment, ergative-absolutive, nominative-accusative, causative, object, direct, oblique <br> |
| 65 | IF basic order is OV, THEN IF the adjective precedes the noun, THEN the genitive precedes the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, SOV, adjective, noun, attributive, genitive |
| 66 | IF basic order is OV, THEN IF the adjective precedes the noun, THEN the genitive precedes the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, OV, verb, object, adjective, noun, attributive, genitive |
| 67 | IF basic order is VSO, THEN IF the adjective follows the noun, THEN the genitive follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, VSO, noun, adjective, attributive, genitive |
| 68 | IF basic order is verb-initial, THEN IF the adjective follows the noun, THEN the genitive follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, verb-initial, noun, adjective, attributive, genitive |
| 69 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the adjective follows the noun, THEN the genitive follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, preposition, adjective, noun, attributive, genitive |
| 70 | IF there are prepositions and basic order is not SVO, THEN IF the adjectives follows the noun, THEN the genitive follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, SVO, preposition, adjective, noun, attributive, genitive |
| 71 | IF there are postpositions, THEN IF the adjective precedes the noun, THEN the genitive precedes the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, postposition, adjective, noun, attributive, genitive |
| 72 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, THEN the adjective follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, preposition, noun, demonstrative, adjective |
| 73 | IF the demonstrative determiner follows the noun, THEN the adjective follows the noun. OR, BY CONTRAPOSITION: IF the adjective precedes the noun, THEN the demonstrative determiner precedes the noun. |
syntax | implication | order, noun, demonstrative, adjective |
| 74 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the numeral follows the noun, THEN the adjective follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | order, preposition, noun, numeral, adjective |
| 75 | IF the numeral follows the noun, THEN the adjective follows the noun. OR, BY CONTRAPOSITION: IF the adjective precedes the noun, THEN the numeral precedes the noun. |
syntax | implication | order, noun, numeral, adjective |
| 76 | IF relativization is restricted to subjects, THEN the semantic case of the non-agent promoted to subject in passivization is coded on the verb. | inflection, syntax | implication | diathesis, relativization, passivization, subject, verb-marking |
| 77 | IF relativization of objects is restricted to direct objects, THEN the direct object is unmarked and indirect objects lose their own marking when becoming direct objects but are coded on the verb for their semantic case. | inflection, syntax | implication | dative-shift, direct object, indirect object, relativization, verb-marking |
| 78 | IF passivization is restricted to direct objects, THEN the direct object loses any direct or verbal marking for its semantic case in the passive and acquires all case-coding properties of a subject. | inflection, syntax | implication | diathesis, passivization, subject, verb, direct object |
| 79 | IF passivization involves (a) the complete assumption of the coding properties of the subject by the promoted object (and thus complete loss of its original case-coding), and in addition (b) promotion of non-accusative objects to direct object via dative-shifting results in verb-coding of the semantic case of those objects, THEN there will be a direct object-only constraint on passivization. | inflection, syntax | implication | diathesis, passivization, dative-shift, subject, direct object, indirect object, case |
| 80 | Relativization is never limited to NPs demoted from subjecthood by passivization. | syntax | unconditional | diathesis, passivization, relativization, subject |
| 81 | Relativization is never limited to NPs demoted from direct object status by dative shift. | syntax | unconditional | direct object, dative-shift, relativization |
| 82 | Passivization is never limited to NPs demoted from direct object status by dative shift. | syntax | unconditional | diathesis, passivization, dative-shift, direct object |
| 83 | When direct objects are marked by accusative, non-direct objects do not gain accusative marking in dative-shifting. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | accusative case, indirect object, dative-shift |
| 84 | IF the verb agrees with anything other than subjects, THEN it agrees with some or all subjects. | inflection, syntax | implication | verb, agreement, subject |
| 85 | IF the verb agrees with anything other than subjects, THEN it agrees with some or all direct objects. | inflection, syntax | implication | verb, agreement, subject, direct object |
| 86 | IF the verb agrees with anything other than subjects and direct objects, THEN it agrees with some or all indirect objects. | inflection, syntax | implication | verb, agreement, subject, direct object, indirect object |
| 87 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the demonstrative follows the noun, THEN the relative clause follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | preposition, order, noun, demonstrative, relative clause |
| 88 | IF the demonstrative follows the noun, THEN the relative clause follows the noun. OR, BY CONTRAPOSITION: IF the relative clause precedes the noun, THEN the demonstrative precedes the noun. |
syntax | implication | order, relative clause, demonstrative, noun |
| 89 | IF there are any formal similarities in agreement markers, THEN they are between non-subject agreement markers. | inflection, syntax | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | agreement, verb, direct object, indirect object, subject, adverbial object |
| 90 | An object agreement marker cannot be formally and semantically entirely distinct from a personal pronoun (in its object form). | inflection, syntax | unconditional | object, agreement, personal pronoun, verb |
| 91 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the adjective follows the noun, THEN the relative clause follows the noun. | syntax | nested implication | preposition, order, noun, adjective, relative clause |
| 92 | IF there are prepositions, THEN (IF nouns precede demonstratives or nouns precede numerals, THEN nouns precede adjectives) and (IF nouns precede adjectives THEN nouns precede genitives) and (IF nouns precede genitives THEN nouns precede relative clauses). | syntax | nested implication | order, preposition, noun, demonstrative, numeral, adjective, attributive, relative clause |
| 93 | IF there is a gender distinction in the 2nd person singular of pronouns, THEN the 3rd person singular is likelier to have than to lack a gender distinction. | inflection | implication | pronoun, gender, number, singular, person, 2, 3 |
| 94 | IF an overt copula is required for a predicate that is an action word (verb), THEN it is required for a predicate that is a property word (adjective). IF an overt copula is required for a predicate that is a property word (adjective), THEN it is required for a predicate that is an object word (noun). |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | copula, verb, adjective, noun, predication |
| 95 | IF there are postpositions, THEN (IF adjectives precede nouns or relatives precede nouns, THEN demonstratives preced nouns and numerals precede nouns) and (IF demonstratives precede nouns or numerals precede nouns, THEN genitives precede nouns). | syntax | nested implication | order, postposition, adjective, relative clause, noun, demonstrative, numeral, attributive, genitive |
| 96 | IF there are postpositions, THEN (IF adjectives precede nouns or relatives precede nouns, THEN demonstratives preced nouns and numerals precede nouns and possessives preced nouns) and (IF demonstratives precede nouns or numerals precede nouns or possessives precede nouns, THEN genitives precede nouns). |
syntax | nested implication | order, postposition, adjective, relative clause, noun, demonstrative, numeral, attributive, genitive, possessive |
| 97 | IF there are prepositions, THEN IF the adverb follows the adjective within the adjective phrase, THEN the standard of comparison follows the adjective. | syntax | nested implication | order, preposition, adjective, adverb, comparison |
| 98 | IF there are postpositions, THEN IF the adverb precedes the adjective within the adjective phrase, THEN the standard of comparison precedes the adjective. | syntax | nested implication | order, postposition, adjective, adverb, comparison |
| 99 | Within noun phrases, lighter constituents tend to precede heavier constituents, as follows: Dem/Num ≥ Adj ≥ Gen ≥ Rel Relative heaviness is a composite notion defined in terms of (at least) the following four factors: length and quantity of morphemes, quantity of words, syntactic depth of branching nodes, inclusion of dominated constituents. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | relative clause, attributive, genitive, adjective, demonstrative, numeral, order, heaviness, complexity |
| 100 | Within noun phrases, adjectives, demonstratives, and numerals are more mobile than genitives and relative clauses insofar as they can appear on that side of a noun which is opposite to the adposition. | syntax | implication | order, adjective, demonstrative, numeral, relative clause, attributive, genitive, preposition, postposition |