Universals Archive
A database of proposed crosslinguistic laws and tendencies in grammar across the world’s languages. 2,029 published entries.
1,237 entries · page 24 of 25
| # | Standardized / Original | Domain | Type | Keywords |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1883 | IF a verbal form inflects for tense-aspect-modality (TAM) like a predicated verb, THEN it will take subject and object dependents like a predicated verb. IF a verbal form takes a subject dependent like a predicated verb, THEN it will take an object dependent like a predicated verb. |
inflection, syntax | implication | deverbalization hierarchy, predicated verb, tense, aspect, mood, sunject, object |
| 1893 | IF there is an opposition of voice vs. voiceless and aspirate vs. non-aspirate, THEN there is a phoneme /h/. | phonology | implication | aspirate, voice, /h/ |
| 1894 | IF there is an opposition of dental and retroflex consonants, THEN there is an opposition of pharyngealized and non-pharyngealized dentals. | phonology | implication | pharyngeal, dental, retroflex |
| 1895 | IF anything grammatical is borrowed, THEN there is a borrowed lexical item from the same source language. | all-encompassing | implication | language contact, borrowing |
| 1896 | IF there are borrowed bound morphemes, such as clitics, affixes and parts of compound stems, THEN there are borrowed free forms which these bound morphemes are proper parts of. IF there are borrowed phonetic segments or features, THEN there are borrowed accentuated lexemes which these segments or features are proper parts of. |
morphology | implication | language contact, borrowing, accent, affix, clitic |
| 1897 | IF there is a borrowed non-noun, THEN there is a borrowed noun. | lexicon | implication | language contact, borrowing, word class |
| 1898 | A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties. | lexicon | unconditional | language contact, borrowing, word class, verb |
| 1899 | IF there ais a borrowed inflectional affix, THEN there is a borrowed derivational affix. | morphology | implication | language contact, borrowing, affix |
| 1900 | When function words are borrowed (especially adpositions and conjunctions), their ordering relative to their co-constituents will be the same as in the donor language. |
syntax | unconditional | language contact, borrowing, order, adposition, conjunction |
| 1901 | When at least some words of a particular word class are uninflected, words of that some word class that are borrowed must include ones which are equally uninflected. |
inflection | unconditional | language contact, borrowing |
| 1902 | IF respect or social distance is distinguished for speaker (1st person) or other (3rd person) pronouns, THEN it is also distinguished for addressee (2nd person) pronouns. | inflection, syntax, discourse | implication | speaker, addressee, social distance, respect, honorific |
| 1903 | Processess of variation of the type of pronoun used in reference for showing degrees of respect or social distance are more common in address than in reference to the speaker or to someone other than the speaker or addressee. | inflection, syntax, discourse | implication | pronoun, personal pronoun, speaker, addressee, non-locutor, social distance, respect, personal pronoun, honorific |
| 1904 | IF respect or social distance is distinguished for plural pronouns, THEN it is also distinguished for singular pronouns. |
inflection, syntax, discourse | implication | pronoun, personal pronoun, social distance, respect, honorific, number, singular, plural |
| 1905 | A pronominal form used for showing greater respect or social distance is never eliminated from the system of reference in favour of one for showing less respect or social distance. | inflection, syntax, discourse | unconditional | pronoun, personal pronoun, social distance, respect, honorific |
| 1915 | IF there are modal particles, THEN there are modal adverbials. | lexicon | implication | modal particles, modal adverbials |
| 1916 | IF there is an optative mood, THEN there is subjunctive or an imperative mood | inflection, syntax | implication | mood, optative, subjunctive, imperative |
| 1918 | IF Dative/Benefative objects can be promoted to direct object, THEN other object cases lower on the topicality hierarchy may also be "promoted" to direct object — but always with obligatory verb-coding of the semantic role of the "promoted" object. | inflection, syntax | implication | direct object, dative-shift, promotion |
| 1919 | IF basic order is VO, THEN the "promoted" direct object tends to be unmarked. | inflection, syntax | implication | order, VO, direct object, dative-shift, markedness |
| 1920 | IF basic order is OV, THEN the "promoted" direct object tends to be marked. | inflection, syntax | implication | order, OV, direct object, dative-shift, markedness |
| 1932 | Diminutives tend to contain high front vowels, whereas augmentatives tend to contain high back vowels. | phonology, semantics | unconditional | diminutive, augmentative, vowel, high, front, back, iconicity |
| 1934 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a negative determiner, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of a specific determiner, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, indefinite pronoun, negative determiner, specific determiner |
| 1935 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a free-choice indefinite, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of other than free-choice indefinite of the same ontological category, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, indefinite pronoun, free-choice indefinite |
| 1936 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a personal indefinite, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of an impersonal indefinite of the same indefiniteness function, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, indefinite pronoun, personal indefinte, impersonal indefinite |
| 1937 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a local indefinite, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of a temporal indefinite of the same indefiniteness function, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, indefinite pronoun, local indefinite, temporal indefinite |
| 1941 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a local interrogative, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of a temporal interrogative, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, local interrogative, temporal interrogative |
| 1943 | IF there is a word-form borrowing of a personal indefinite in a language, THEN there is a word-form borrowing of an temporal indefinite of the same indefiniteness function, too. | lexicon, morphology | implication | borrowing, pronoun, definiteness |
| 1944 | When there are suppletive stems for a verb 'to give' determined by the person of the recipient, the opposition will always be 1st vs. 2nd&3rd person or 1st&2nd vs. 3rd person, never 1st&3rd vs. 2nd person. | inflection | unconditional | suppletion, verb, recipient, person, 1, 2, 3 |
| 1945 | IF words of whatever word class can be derived from nouns, THEN nouns can be derived from words/stems other than nouns. | word formation | implication | derivation, noun, word class |
| 1946 | IF there is internal stem modification or suprasegmental modification or subtraction or conversion or suppletion in derivation or inflection, THEN there is affixation. |
morphology | implication | internal modification, suprasegmental modification, subtraction, conversion, suppletion, reduplication, affixation |
| 1947 | Provided an infix has alternative positions outside the stem, that external position is always at that edge of the stem in relation to which the infix is positioned. (left edge infixes → prefixes, right edge infixes → suffixes) | morphology | no genuine implication; rather: provided that | affix, infix, order |
| 1948 | 2nd person plurals never appear to make a distinction between a plurality of addressees and combinations of one or more addressees with non-ego, non-addressees, i.e., 3rd persons. | inflection | unconditional | pronoun, personal pronoun, number, non-singular, 2nd person, inclusive, exclusive |
| 1949 | IF indicators of any persons combine to form new pronouns, THEN the combination of 1st and 2nd person singular also occurs. | morphology | implication | pronoun, personal pronoun, 1st person, 2nd person |
| 1950 | When three-degree systems of demonstratives where proximal/medial/distal correspond to 1st/2nd/3rd person develop into two-degree systems, the opposition will be proximal&medial vs. distal or proximal vs. medial&distal, corresponding to 1st&2nd vs. 3rd person or 1st vs. 2nd&3rd person. There will never be a two-degree demonstrative system with a correspondence to a person system where the opposition is 1st/3rd vs. 2nd person. | lexicon | unconditional | demonstrative, proximal, medial, distal, person, 1, 2, 3 |
| 1951 | In deixis, person and related spatial, 1st and 3rd person never align as against 2nd. 2nd person may align with 1st or 3rd or both. | inflection, syntax | unconditional | deixis, spatial, person, 1, 2, 3 |
| 1953 | IF there are Class IV predicates requiring non-canonicaly marked A/S, THEN there are also Class Ia-b, Class IIa-c, Class IIIa-b and Class V predicates requiring non-canonically marked A/S or O. | inflection, lexicon | implication | case, agent, patient, subject, predicate |
| 1954 | IF non-canonical marking with Class IIIa predicates, THEN also non-canonical marking with Class Ib predicates, and vice versa. | inflection, lexicon | mutual implication | case, agent, patient, subject, predicate |
| 1955 | IF there are Class IIIa/Ib predicates requiring non-canonicaly marked A/S, THEN there are also Class Ia predicates requiring non-canonically marked A/S. | inflection, lexicon | implication | case, agent, subject, predicate |
| 1956 | IF there is partial or complete denasalization of nasal consonants, THEN there is a contrast of oral and nasal vowels. | phonology | implication | vowel, nasal, oral, denasalization |
| 1957 | IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in a comparative context, THEN it can also occur in a conditional context. IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in a conditional context, THEN it can also occur in an interrogative context. IF a negative polarity item (in particular an auxiliary) can occur in an interrogative context, THEN it can also occur in a negative context. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | negative polarity item, auxiliary, comparative, conditional, interrogative, negative |
| 1959 | IF there is tone, THEN vowel systems are (have stayed) relatively rich; IF there is stress accent, THEN vowel systems are (have become) impoverished. |
phonology | implication | tone, stress accent, vowel systems |
| 1960 | IF a speech community is a politically dominant, warrior people, THEN there will be stress accent; IF a speech community is a politically subordinate, peaceful people, THEN there will be tone. |
phonology, culture/mind | implication | stress accent, tone |
| 1962 | IF there is isolation (i.e., no inflectional morphology), THEN word classes of noun and verb are only weakly differentiated, in the sense of (many) roots equally serving as nouns and verbs. | syntax, inflection | implication | isolation, word classes, noun, verb |
| 1963 | IF there are consonant clusters CiCj, THEN there are also stems of the form CiVCj. | phonology, morphology | implication | phonotactics, consonant cluster |
| 1964 | IF the basic word form is stem+suffix, THEN word stress, provided it is fixed, is on a non-final syllable. IF the basic word form coincides with the stem (i.e., is without suffix), THEN word stress, provided it is fixed, is on final syllable. |
phonology, morphology | implication | word stress, suffix |
| 1965 | IF a phonotactic constraint holds for a syllable-edge, THEN it also holds for a corresponding word edge, but not vice versa. | phonology, morphology | implication | word, syllable, phonotactic constraint |
| 1966 | IF a sequence of consonants (possibly only consisting of one) occurs in a consonant cluster of n members, THEN it also occurs in a corresponding cluster of n-1 members. | phonology | implication | consonant cluster, phonotactics |
| 1969 | For both stems and consonant clusters, IF less sonorant consonant combinations are permissible, THEN the corresponding more sonorant consonant combinations are also permissible: CVC > CVS > CV CC > CS > C |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | phonotactics, sonority, stem, consonant cluster |
| 1970 | IF clusters of n Cs are possible syllable-initially, THEN clusters of n-1 Cs are also possible syllable-initially, and IF clusters of n Cs are possible syllable-finally, THEN clusters of n-1 Cs are also possible syllable-finally. | phonology | implication | phonotactics, syllable, consonant cluster, complexity |
| 1972 | Every language has at least one set of forms or constructions whose primary function (or one of several major functions) is to denote existence, generally with respect to location in space or time, but in the limiting case existence apart from specific location. In other words, every language has an existential element such as a verb or particle, and the denotation of existence is never merely a marginal function of something else. | syntax, semantics | unconditional | verb, particle, existence |
| 1973 | Every language has at least one set of forms or constructions whose primary function (or one of several major functions) is to denote copulative relationships (e.g., identity, equivalence, class membership, class inclusion, attribution of property). In other words, every language has at least one copula or copula constructions, even if this is a zero of some kind which clearly contrasts with other elements commutable with it. | syntax, semantics | unconditional | verb, copula, zero |