Universals Archive
A database of proposed crosslinguistic laws and tendencies in grammar across the world’s languages. 2,029 published entries.
78 entries · page 1 of 2
| # | Standardized / Original | Domain | Type | Keywords |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 44 | Assuming that grammatical relations are ordered from left to right according to their decreasing semantic concreteness and correspondingly increasing grammaticalization as in the diagram (where arrows indicate attested diachronic grammaticalization), then IF there is noun-phrase external agreement with a relation of any column of this diagram, THEN there will be noun-phrase external agreement with the relations of all columns to its right. IF there is overt case marking for a given column, THEN there will be overt case marking for all columns to its left. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | NP, adjunct, direct object, indirect object, subject, attributive, locative, instrumental, comitative, directional, ergative, case, agreement<br> |
| 45 | IF the verb agrees with Attributive, THEN it also agrees with Oblique Object. IF the verb agrees with Oblique Object, THEN it also agrees with Indirect Object. IF the verb agrees with Indirect Object, THEN it also agrees with Direct Object. IF the verb agrees with Direct Object, THEN it also agrees with Subject. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | agreement, verb, subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique object, attributive, relational hierarchy |
| 54 | If in the NP-internal distribution of case a lexically assigned case competes with a structurally or otherwise assigned case, lexical case takes precedence over all other types of case assignment, while structural case does not take precedence over any other type of case; that is, such agreement conflicts are resolved in terms of the case hierarchy, lexical case > ... > structural case (in particular nominative/accusative). | inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | case, structural case, lexical case, case hierarchy, nominative, accusative, agreement |
| 94 | IF an overt copula is required for a predicate that is an action word (verb), THEN it is required for a predicate that is a property word (adjective). IF an overt copula is required for a predicate that is a property word (adjective), THEN it is required for a predicate that is an object word (noun). |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | copula, verb, adjective, noun, predication |
| 99 | Within noun phrases, lighter constituents tend to precede heavier constituents, as follows: Dem/Num ≥ Adj ≥ Gen ≥ Rel Relative heaviness is a composite notion defined in terms of (at least) the following four factors: length and quantity of morphemes, quantity of words, syntactic depth of branching nodes, inclusion of dominated constituents. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | relative clause, attributive, genitive, adjective, demonstrative, numeral, order, heaviness, complexity |
| 136 | IF one of the relations of (i) alienability, (ii) inalienability, and (iii) classification is realized formally by a certain construction, THEN no relations below it on the hierarchy may be realized by a different construction used for relations higher on the hierarchy. LIKEWISE: IF a particular construction encodes a semantic relation of a certain type, THEN no construction for a relation below it will encode a semantic relation higher on the scale. |
morphology, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | possession, alienable, inalienable, classification, compound, head-marking, dependent-marking<br> |
| 179 | IF a target agrees in Case, THEN it also agrees in Number and Gender. IF a target agrees in Gender, THEN it also agrees in Number. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | agreement, number, case, gender, target |
| 192 | A relation that is higher on the hierarchy of centrality (subject-object > local relations; locative > ablative; ...) than another one will not be expressed lower down on the grammatical-to-lexical hierarchy of expression (word order > verbal coding > case > adpositions > ...). | inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | grammatical relations, local relations, word order, case, adposition |
| 217 | IF one of the elements of the hierarchy takes ergative case-marking, THEN all units to its right also take ergative case-marking as well; and IF one of the units takes accusative case-marking, THEN all units to its left also take accusative case-marking. | inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | alignment, case, ergative, accusative, pronoun, noun, NP hierarchy |
| 248 | IF there is an Adverb as a distinct word class, THEN there are also Adjectives, Nouns, and Verbs. IF there are Adjectives, THEN there are also Nouns and Verbs. IF there are Nouns, THEN there are also Verbs. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | word class, verb, noun, adjective, adverb |
| 249 | Predicate hierarchy 1A: non-presentative ascriptive predications (Xi)loc > A > N > (Xi)poss. This hierarchy says that if a predication type at a certain point in the hierarchy is predicable in that language, then all predication types preceding it in the hierarchy are also predicable in that language. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | word class, predicate, possessive, noun, adjective, locative |
| 443 | Hierarchy of proneness to lose sentential head-marking: A > S > P, where sentential head-marking is impossible for A, and possible for P. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | nominalization, head-marking |
| 489 | If there are long affricates, THEN there are long stops. IF there are long affricates and long stops, THEN there are long fricatives. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | geminate, affricate, stop, fricative |
| 521 | IF conjunction reduction has ergative alignment, THEN so does coreferential deletion in purposive constructions. IF coreferential deletion in purposive constructions has ergative alignment, THEN so does relativization. IF relativization has ergative alignment, THEN so does verb agreement. IF verb agreement has ergative alignment, THEN so does case marking. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | alignment, ergativity, conjunction reduction, coreferential deletion, purposive, relativization, verb, agreement, case |
| 573 | IF the definite article is grammaticalized in subject NPs, THEN it is also grammaticalized in direct object NPs. IF the definite article is grammaticalized in direct object NPs, THEN it is also grammaticalized in prepositionally marked NPs. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | article, grammaticalization, PP, direct object NP, subject NP |
| 574 | Hierarchy of syntactic bondedness (stronger > weaker): article+noun > deictic+noun < interrogative+noun < quantifier/indefinite+noun < adjective+noun > > participle+noun > relative clause+noun. As soon as an adjunct category has an obligatory overt marker of its subordination to the head noun (such as ligature morphemes), all weaker bound categories of adjuncts also require an overt marker. But bondedness hierarchy is claimed to be valid for other morphosyntactic differences between various kinds of adjuncts as well. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | article, noun, interrogative, deictic, quantifier, indefinite, adjective, participle, relative clause, boundeness, hierarchy, ligative |
| 579 | IF personal pronouns can have semantic rather than syntactic agreement in gender or number with a particular noun, THEN relative pronouns, predicative, and attributive constituents can also have semantic agreement with that noun. IF relative pronouns can have semantic agreement in gender or number with a particular noun, THEN predicative, and attributive constituents can also have semantic agreement with that noun. IF predicative constituents can have semantic agreement in gender or number with a particular noun, THEN attributive constituents can also have semantic agreement with that noun. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | agreement, gender, number, attributive, predicate, relative pronoun, personal pronoun |
| 591 | Whenever in a language there are two classes of noun phrases such that members of one class are case-marked ergatively and members of the other class are case-marked accusatively, and there is a semantic difference between the classes related either to activeness of noun phrase referents, or their quantitative properties, or their pragmatic prominence, members of the class that ranks higher on these properties will be marked accusatively and members of the lower-ranking class, ergatively. | inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | case, accusative, ergative, NP, hierarchy, split |
| 616 | IF PURPLE or PINK or ORANGE or GREY , THEN BROWN. IF BROWN, THEN BLUE. IF BLUE, THEN YELLOW and GREEN. IF YELLOW or GREEN, THEN RED. IF RED, THEN WHITE and BLACK. |
lexicon | implicational hierarchy | colour terms hierarchy |
| 618 | IF an object of comparison can be relativized, THEN an attributive genitive can be as well. IF an attributive genitive can be relativized, THEN a major oblique case NP can be as well. IF a major oblique case NP can be relativized, THEN an indirect object can be as well. IF an indirect object can be relativized, THEN a direct object can be as well. IF an direct object can be relativized, THEN a subject can be as well. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | accessibility hierarchy, relative clause, attributive, indirect object, direct object, subject, object of comparison |
| 619 | If an NPrel is a pronoun for subjects, THEN an NPrel can be a pronoun for non-direct objects, direct objects, and possessors as well. If NPrel is a pronoun for direct objects, THEN NPrel can be a pronoun for non-direct objects, and possessors as well. If NPrel is a pronoun for non-direct objects, THEN NPrel can be a pronoun for possessors as well. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | accessibility hierarchy, pronoun, relative clause, attributive, non-direct object, direct object, subject |
| 622 | IF an attributive can be relativized by gapping, THEN non-direct objects, direct objects, and subjects can be as well. IF a non-direct object can be relativized by gapping, THEN direct objects and subjects can be as well. IF a direct object can be relativized by gapping, THEN subjects can be as well. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | accessibility hierarchy, relative clause, gapping, attributive, non-direct object, direct object, subject<br> |
| 629 | Sonority Hierarchy: vowels > liquids > glides > nasals > fricatives > stops | phonology | implicational hierarchy | sonority hierarchy |
| 714 | IF one co-ordination strategy is used for NPs, THEN it is also used for PPs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for PPs, THEN it is also used for APs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for APs, THEN it is also used for VPs. IF one co-ordination strategy is used for VPs, THEN it is also used for Ss. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | co-ordination, complex sentences, complex phrases |
| 741 | Hierarchy of Property Concepts: Human Propensity > Physical Property > Dimension / Colour > Value / Age / Form > Material / Gender When languages encode these types of property concepts by different word classes, wherever the cut-off point, IF a concept type is encoded nominally, THEN all concept types lower on the hierarchy are also encoded nominally; and IF a concept type is encoded verbally, THEN all concept types higher on the hierarchy are also encoded verbally; IF any concept types are encoded through a distinct word class of adjectives, THEN this will include those from the middle of the hierarchy. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | word class, verb, noun, adjective, property concepts |
| 821 | Normal hierarchy of increasing markedness in vowels: /E / ⇒ /a/ ⇒ /e/ ⇒ /i/ ⇒ /ü/ ⇒ /ö/ ⇒ /œ / (front set), /E / ⇒ /a/ ⇒ /o/ ⇒ /u/ (back set). | phonology | implicational hierarchy | hierarchy, markedness, vowel |
| 822 | IF there are glottalized consonants, THEN there are corresponding aspirated consonants; IF there are aspirated consonants, THEN there are corresponding unaspirated consonants. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | markedness, consonant, unaspirated, aspiration, glottalization |
| 911 | IF Location (adverb) is encoded by the verbal strategy, THEN all intransitive main predicates will be encoded by that strategy. IF Class Membership (noun) is encoded by the verbal strategy, THEN Property (adjective) will be encoded by that strategy. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | verbalization, hierarchy, verb, adjective, noun, adverb |
| 914 | IF there is no direct object, THEN the embedded subject appears as direct object. IF there is direct object, but no indirect object, THEN the embedded subject appears as indirect object. IF there are both direct and indirect objects, THEN the embedded subject appears as one of the oblique cases (i.e. neither subject nor direct object nor indirect object) |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | causative, hierarchy, subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique object |
| 916 | IF a plurality split occurs, THEN all NPs to the left from it will have the distinction of plurality and those to the right from it will lack it. | inflection | implicational hierarchy | hierarchy, animacy, split, number, plural |
| 918 | IF incorporation of externally modifiable NP, THEN incorporation of backgrounded NP. IF incorporation of backgrounded NP, THEN incorporation of demoted NP. IF incorporation of demoted NP, THEN incorporation of nonreferential noun. |
morphology, syntax | implicational hierarchy | incorporation, noun |
| 961 | IF there is a future tense resultative, THEN there is a past tense resultative. IF there is a past tense resultative, THEN there is a present tense resultative. |
inflection | implicational hierarchy | resultative, tense, present, past, future |
| 1007 | Resonance Hierarchy: vowel > semivowel > liquid > spirant > sibilant > nasal > stop. The more resonant a sound, the more susceptible it is to metathesis given the necessary conditions therefore. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | metathesis, sonority hierarchy |
| 1084 | Duration of aspiration varies according to place of articulation: k > t > p. | phonology | implicational hierarchy | aspiration, place of articulation |
| 1239 | IF there are null expletives on a certain point in the hierarchy, THEN there will also be null expletives on all the points higher up on the hierarchy. Hierarchy of expletives: argumentless passives and unaccusatives > expletive of displaced NPs > expletives of displaced CPs (S´) > weather predicates > referential NPs. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | expletive, hierarchy |
| 1253 | The more to the left on the hierarchy a consonant is, the greater is its tone-raising effect. The more to the right a consonant is, the greater is its tone-lowering effect: implosive > voiceless aspirated > voiceless unaspirated > sonant > voiced obstruent > breathy |
prosodic phonology | implicational hierarchy | consonant, tone, raising, lowering, hierarchy |
| 1272 | Hierarchy of quantifiers: each > every > all > most > many > several > some (+NPPl) > a few (‘>’ means ‘greater tendency toward higher scope’) |
semantics | implicational hierarchy | quantifier, scope |
| 1273 | Hierarchy of grammatical functions for purposes of quantifier scope: topic > deep and surface subject > deep or surface subject > indirect object > prepositional object > direct object (‘>’ means ‘greater tendency toward higher scope’) |
semantics | implicational hierarchy | quantifier, scope |
| 1299 | IF there is a bivalent locational resultative, THEN there is a monovalent reversible resultative. IF there is a monovalent reversible resultative, THEN there is an irreversible observable resultative. IF there is an irreversible observable resultative, THEN there is an unobservable resultative. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | diathesis, resultative |
| 1300 | In languages where both resultatives proper and derived statives have the same form, the probability for a resultative to have stative meaning increases from right to left: unobservable > irreversible observable > monovalent reversible > bivalent locational |
syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | diathesis, resultative |
| 1378 | Clause embedding hierarchy: IF a gap in a complex NP is grammatical, THEN gaps in finite subordinate clauses and infinitival phrases will also be grammatical. IF a gap in a finite subordinate clause is grammatical, THEN a gap in an infinitival phrase will also be grammatical. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | gap, embedding, hierarchy |
| 1442 | IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of exasperation, relief, longing, torment, and enthrallment, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of pity, enthusiasm, and dismay. IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of pity, enthusiasm, and dismay, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of amazement, envy, and disgust. IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of amazement, envy, and disgust, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the category of contentment. IF there is at least one folk term for the category of contentment, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of anxiety, aggravation, and pride. IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of anxiety, aggravation, and pride, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the category of eagerness. IF there is at least one folk term for the category of eagerness, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of alienation, arousal, and agony. IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of alienation, arousal, and agony, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of adoration, alarm, amusement, and depression. IF there is at least one folk term for the categories of adoration, alarm, amusement, and depression, THEN there is most likely at least one term for the categories of anger and guilt. |
lexicon | implicational hierarchy | hierarchy, emotion categories |
| 1502 | IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a comparative marker, THEN it is also used as a conjunction with conditional clause. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a conjunction with conditional clause, THEN it is also used as a complementizer with embedded question. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a complementizer with embedded question, THEN it is also used as a marker with question word. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a marker with question word, THEN it is also used as a conjunction with reason clause. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a conjunction with reason clause, THEN it is also used as a conjunction with purpose clause. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a conjunction with purpose clause, THEN it is also used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘hope’. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘hope’, THEN it is also used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘believe’. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘believe’, THEN it is also use as a quotative/complementizer with ‘know’. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘know’, THEN it is also used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘say’. IF a de-verbal morpheme is used as a quotative/complementizer with ‘say’, THEN it is also used as a quotative particle. |
morphology | implicational hierarchy | grammaticalization, verb, complementizer, adverbial conjunction |
| 1510 | IF there are intransitive-based passives with non-protagonist subjects, THEN there are such with inanimate subjects. IF there are intransitive-based passives with INANIMATE subjects, THEN there are such with animate and potent subjects. IF there are intransitive-based passives with animate and potent subjects, THEN there are such with volitional animate or human subjects. IF there are intransitive-based passives with volitional animate or human subjects, THEN there are such with volitional human subjects. IF there are intransitive-based passives with volitional human subjects, THEN there are such with 1st person subjects. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | diathesis, passive, intransitive, subject, animacy |
| 1512 | IF verbs of authority and ruling use subject or object dispacement, THEN emotion verbs use these displacements as well. IF emotion verbs use subject or object dispacement, THEN emotion verbs with semantic component WANT will use subject or object dispacement. IF emotion verbs with semantic component WANT use subject or object dispacement, THEN general emotion verbs use these dispacements as well. IF general emotion verbs use subject or object displacement, THEN general psych-verbs use these displacements as well. |
syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | verb, semantics, subject, object |
| 1513 | IF one class of predicates is susceptible to voice-displacement properties, THEN all classes to the right should have this voice-displacements as well: motion > position (location) > shape > formless qualities (colors, textures, etc.) IF a split in the choice between parts of speech occurs, it occurs in accord with the agency and discreteness hierarchy. |
syntax | implicational hierarchy | active verb, stative verb, semantics, word class |
| 1514 | IF a pronoun is bound in positions X and Y, THEN it is also bound in all intermediate positions between X and Y. IF a pronoun is free in positions X and Y, THEN it is also free in all interdmediate positions. IF a reflexive pronoun A is morphologically complex than a reflexive pronoun B, THEN the positions in which A occurs cannot be to the right of the positions in which A occurs. IF a non-syntactic (i.e. logophoric or emphatic) use of a reflexive pronoun is available in a position X, THEN it is available in all positions to the right of X. |
inflection, syntax | implicational hierarchy | reflexive |
| 1588 | IF culturally basic possessed items are among ‘inalienables’, THEN part-whole and/or spatial relations are included in the ‘inalienable’ class as well. IF part-whole and/or spatial relations are among ‘inalienables’, THEN kin terms and/or body parts are included in the ‘inalienable’ class as well. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | possession, inalienable, alienable, kinship |
| 1592 | IF products are among inalienables, THEN so are pet animals; IF pet animals are among inalienables, THEN so are kin terms; IF kin terms are among inalienables, THEN so are clothing items; IF clothing items are among inalienables, THEN so are inherent attributes; IF inherent attributes are among inalienables, THEN so are body parts. |
inflection, syntax, semantics | implicational hierarchy | possession, alienable, inalienable, kinship, animacy |
| 1605 | IF the feature [nasal] is compatible with obstruent stops, THEN it is also compatible with fricatives; IF the feature [nasal] is compatible with fricatives, THEN it is also compatible with liquids; IF the feature [nasal] is compatible with liquids, THEN it is also compatible with semivowels; IF the feature [nasal] is compatible with semivowels, THEN it is also compatible with vowels. |
phonology | implicational hierarchy | nasal harmony, hierarchy |